Criminal Justice and Criminology: How Are They Related?

by Tabetha Cooper

Through observation it has been noticed that many people confuse criminology with criminal justice, thinking at times that they are the same thing.  This paper is going to define what each are, explain how they are different, and show you the relationship between both.  To begin with, it has been cited by Kathryn Sellers from source unknown to me that “Criminology is to criminal justice as theory is to policy.”

            Criminology is “the scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal 

Cover of Criminology: The Core

behavior” (Criminology: The Core, 2008. pg. 2).  On the other hand criminal justice is “thecriminal (penal) law, the law ofcriminal procedure, and thearray of procedures andactivities having to do with theenforcement of this body of law” (Criminal Justice Today, 2007. pg. 14).  A simpler definition would be that criminal justice is the agencies that deal with offenders such as police departments, courts, and correctional facilities.

            As can be told by the definitions, criminology and criminal justice are two very different things.  Criminology is the study and theories of crime.  It focuses on what causes crime and what things presumably can be done to lower the crime rates.  Criminal justice is the creation and enforcement of the laws.  Laws are governed by the Federal courts and upheld by law enforcement agencies.  The local courts deal with the prosecution and sentencing of offenders and the correctional facilities house the criminals and enforce their punishment.

After the criminologist have studied the causation of crime and have developed theories on how to lower the recidivism rates, they sometimes petition the courts for laws to be imposed that support their theories.  Over the course of time different theories have played a part in the creation of laws.  One of the most influential theories is the rational choice theory that states that an offender evaluates their actions prior to ever committing an offense.  As said by Siegel 2008, a part of this theory is making the punishment harsher for offender, therefore minimizing their gains when compared to the risks.

English: This is a chart illustrating the amount spent on criminal justice by function from 1982-2006, from the Bureau of Justice Statistics. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

According to http://www.popcenter.org/about/?p=situational, a theory that that is being considered today is the opportunity theory.  This theory states that crime can only happen if there is an opportunity to commit such an act.  The opportunity theory can help law enforcement officers to literate the importance of minimizing the chances of victimization through eliminating the opportunity for a criminal to take advantage of a situation.  Officers can inform the public and local business of the different measurements that can be taken to protect themselves from becoming victims of a senseless crime.  Inferences can be made that this theory is what has made many cities decide to install video surveillance camera in public places, helping to deter criminal acts. 

Now that the definitions have been given and the difference has been established, one could see how criminology and criminal justice are two separate things that work hand in hand to keep crime at a minimum.  In short, criminology is the theory of crime and criminal justice is the policy that enforces it.  As the field of criminology grows, a safe assumption would be that the criminal justice system will see a decrease in the offenders running through it.

References

http://www.popcenter.org/about/?p=situationalRetrieved 1.25.10

Schmalleger, F. (2007). Criminal Justice Today: An Introductory Text for the 21st Century (9th

ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Retrieved 1.24.10

Sellers, Kathryn (2010).  CJ 102-02.  Kaplan University  Retrieved 1.23.10

Siegel, L. J. (2008). Criminology: The Core (3^rd ed.). Belmont, Ca. Cengage Learning.

Retrieved 1.23.10

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Analysis Essay Neutralization Theory

by Tabetha Cooper

Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

“Everyone does it.”  An excuse I am sure that we have all used in adolescence while trying to convince our parents of why we should be allowed to do something.  This is just one of the many excuses used to justify crime, according to the Neutralization Theory, one of the Social Process Theories.  Along with the Neutralization Theory this paper is also going to discuss Social Process Theory, how it pertains to crime, and how it has influenced public and social policies.

             As Siegel (2007) points out, criminal behavior is a result of people’s involvement with different organizations and institutions and their overall encounter’s with society, which is known at the Social Process Theory.  In other words people that are actively involved with others that abide by the law and have good morals are not going to participate in criminal or delinquent behaviors and people who maintain contact with criminals or other individuals who push the boundaries of the law are going to partake in like behaviors.  There are theories that fall under the Social Process Theory, such as Social Learning Theories (Differential Association Theory and Neutralization Theory), Social Control Theory, and Social Reaction Theory (also known as Labeling Theory).

A 1920s display comparing brain types to criminality. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

            The Neutralization Theory simply states that no person is completely bad or completely good.  That criminals “drift” between criminal and conventional behaviors (Siegel, 2007, p. 154).  Matza (1964) defined drifting as people swaying from “one extreme behavior to another.” (http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/matza.htm).  Drifting behavior can be classified as soft determinism, which is the belief that criminality is both chosen by the criminal and determined by nature.  A person chooses to commit crime but they believe that obeying law is what is supposed to be done.  People drift in and out of crime because criminal behaviors are not acceptable in every situation.  These people feel that they are restricted by law and “shun” criminal behaviors all the while participating in those same delinquent or criminal behaviors themselves (DeMelo, 2001).  Matza (1964) feels that these people live in a “continuum” between freedom and restraint.

To keep guilt at bay, or neutralizing it, criminals use justifications that convince them that their behavior is acceptable. These excuses are called neutralization techniques.  The first is denial of responsibility, where a person convinces themselves that they had no choice but to do it, an “it wasn’t my fault” attitude.  The next is denial of injury which is when the person committing a crime uses the excuse that they weren’t hurting anyone, an “it isn’t a big deal” type of attitude.  Then there is denial of victim, where the criminal feels that they committed the crime against someone who deserved it, a “he had it coming” view.  The next is condemnation of condemners, where the person believes that they person scalding them is only doing so because they have already done the same thing themselves or wish they could do it.  The last is the appeal to higher loyalties, where the delinquent commits the act because he feels that he has to, due to expectations of his peers or needs of his family, seen like “mom needed to pay the electric bill.” (Siegel, 2007, p. 154-155 & Topalli, 2006, p. 476-477).  The neutralization theory can explain why criminals are believed to age out of crime, these people mature and these excuses are no longer valid.

Throughout time Social Process Theories have affected public and social policies.  According to Siegel (2007) these theories have been utilized in community action policies as well as treatment institutions.  An example of a policy that has been influenced by these theories is the diversion program, a program set up to keep criminals out of the prison system.  In a diversion program an offender is sentenced to some sort of treatment program.  Say a man was arrest for possession of oxycodone; he can be sentenced to a rehabilitation center instead of going to jail, with the condition that he completes the program.  Another example is restitution, which is where an offender is given the option of paying back the victim or community either with money or through community service.  Say a woman was in a non-injury car accident, but she didn’t have any insurance.  She may be sentenced to probation and restitution in the amount of the damages she caused to the other person’s vehicle.

Social Process Theories tend to focus on why people don’t commit crimes verses other theories of criminology that focuses on why people do commit crimes (Sellers, 2010).  The Social Process Theory believes that people who associate with law abiding people will abide by the law and vice versa.  That criminal and delinquent behavior is determined by whom a person associates with.  It has been established that the Neutralization Theory was based on the fact that people who come from a law abiding community but make friends with deviants and criminals can “drift” between behavior roles, neutralizing their guilt of criminal behavior by justifying it.  It is clear that the different Social Process Theories has affected policies in the justice system.  It can be foreseen that additional policies will be implemented based on these theories.

  

References

DeMelo, D. (2001) about: Tabs. Retrieved February 23, 2010, from

http://www.umsl.edu/~keelr/200/Diane_Demelo/diane.pdf

Matza, D... (1964) Delinquency and drift - Books. Retrieved February 23, 2010, from

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Nw_zNXfHkkQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Delinquency+and+Drift+(1964),+David+Matza&ots=f6CVIjne_x&sig=_dIp3PD5kKpv5h2qR31wClgfoo8#v=onepage&q=DelinquencyandDrift(1964)%2CDavidMatza&f=false

Siegel, L. J. (2007). Criminology: The Core (3^rd Ed.). Belmont, Ca. Cengage Learning

Topalli, Vokan. (2006) The Seductive Nature of Autotelic Crime:  How Neutralization Theory Serves as a

Boundary Condition for Understanding Hardcore Street Offending. Retrieved February 24, 2010,

From http://chhs.gsu.edu/cj/docs/topalli_neutralizationtheory.pdf

Unknown. (unknown) David Matza. Retrieved February 23, 2010, from

http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/matza.htm

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Methods and Ethics of Psychology

by Tabetha Cooper

What is research?  That is a good question.  The standard definition given on 

Research Bar (Photo credit: Rice-Aron Library)

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/researchis, “diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, applications, etc.”  I would say research is what you do when you are gathering data for or through an experiment that will help to either confirm or dismiss your hypothesis.  So what is a hypothesis?   As defined bySchacter, Gilbert, Wegner (2009), a hypothesis is “a specific and testable prediction that is usually derived from a theory.”  The way I would define it would be as an educated guess about the outcome of an experiment.

Once someone has come up with a theory, they form a hypothesis.  After there is a suitable hypothesis that can be tested, an experiment would be set up.  When setting up an experiment to test a theory research needs to be done to find the best way to do this safely and accurately.  Then what you are actually doing in your experiment is researching information on your specific topic of interest.  Once the research is collected and all data is in the next step would be to evaluate the data.  Upon completion of the evaluation of data a psychologist should be able to tell if their theory is going to be confirmed, dismissed, or if additional research is going to be needed.

            There are different methods of research.  One such method is the case method which is defined as collecting knowledge by studying an individual.  Another is naturalistic observation, a method that gains information by secretly observing a person.  The next method is the experimentation which is the method of assembling knowledge in a controlled environment. The last method I am going to mention is the survey method which is compiling information in the form of surveys or questionnaires. 

Research Team (Photo credit: shareski)

If I were asked which method of research I would choose to conduct a study, what would I answer?  After some time spent pondering, I have to say that out of all the different methods I have been introduced to I favor case method the most.  The case method is a case study on an individual person, which is very appealing to me.  Just to clarify I think that either a controlled or naturalistic observation would be the best for big studies but based on my interests, case method is the best choice for me.

            The reason I would choose the case method is because it is more up and personal.  Results can be altered by lies but I believe that if enough time is spent with a participant that the truth would come out.  I am more interested in the thought process, as in the chain of thought and ways of thinking with individual people.  For me this method of research would be the most idealistic.  I believe that the more one on one time spent with a person, the more you will be able to connect their train of thoughts and even be able to learn to tell when they are lying.

English: AMA (American Medical Association)'s Code of Medical Ethics. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

            Whenever you do any method of research dealing with human beings you have to make sure that the code of ethic that was put forth by the American Psychological Association in 1958 is followed extensively.  One of the more important rules listed within the code of ethics is informed consent, a form that participants of an study must sign that states that they are willing to take part in the study and have been informed of any dangers that may be involved.  Another important rule is the freedom from coercion which states that participants have to volunteer for a study and that they cannot be persuaded to do so.  Protection from harm is another wonderful rule, this rule state that every precaution necessary must be taken to protect participants from psychological as well as physical harm during a study.  Another rule worth mentioning is the risk-benefit analysis rule which says that participants may be subject to small risks but are not permitted to be asked to partake in studies involving large risks.  But I would have to say that my favorite rule is the debriefing, a rule that makes it clear that a psychologist may keep information about a study from the participants prior to the study but must tell the participants everything about the study upon completion.  The reason this rule is my favorite is because it would be fun to see a person’s face after they are told what they were really being studied for.

            In a case study I think that each rule in the code of ethics would apply to some extent.  Although I feel that certain important rules would not be as vital in this form of study, such as the protection from harm.  But I guess it would depend on what the nature of the study was.  In the form that I want to utilize the case method, it would not really apply.  Another rule that I don’t think would apply so much would be the risk-benefit analysis, but again this would depend on the exact nature of the study intended.

American Psychological Association (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

            Something that I would like to mention while we are on the topic of ethics is that a psychologist (or any other scientist performing an experiment) needs to be sure that their planned study is ethical.  When I say the study itself needs to be ethical I mean the nature of the study, the intent for the study, and the goals that the study is meant to achieve.  The definition of ethics varies from person to person but I think that by using the American Psychological Association’s code of ethics as a guideline when determining any part of a study that a researcher will be safe.  We need to remember that the code of ethics was not put in play to limit the amount of studies that can be completed, but rather to protect the integrity of the psychologist performing the study, and more importantly to protect a participant from becoming injured severely in one form or another.

            When a psychologist comes to the point of their study where they must make a conclusion, they do so in a variety of ways.  One way would be to use a frequency distribution, which is a graph that shows the how many times something was observed during a study.  Using a correlation coefficient which is a measure of statistics that shows the strength of a correlation between two or more variables of a study is another way to come to a conclusion.  A great way to make a conclusion is studying the internal validity, the characteristics of an experiment that show a causal relationship between both the independent and dependent variables.

English: A set-theoretic illustration of hypothesis testing in the case where the true rule (T) overlaps the working hypothesis (H). Adapted from Figure 2 of Joshua Klayman, Young-Won Ha (1987). "Confirmation, Disconfirmation and Information in Hypothesis Testing". Psychological Review (American Psychological Association) 94 (2): 211–228. ISSN 0033-295X (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

            If I had an option to do research on any topic that I choose I would have to say, using the case method, I would want to research and learn more about the workings of a serial killers mind.  I am fascinated by how someone can take the lives of so many people in such horrendous ways and find nothing wrong with it, even crave to do so.  I want to study their family lives from birth through incarceration. I would also like to study their eating, drinking, social, and work habits.  I would like to spend an extensive amount of time with each participant I studied.  I would want all their medical histories and arrest records. Through my studies I would like to see if there is are thought patterns in the way serial killers think.   My ultimate goal with the studies I would like to perform is to see if there would be absolute way to identify a serial killer before any killings have a chance to occur.

            I want to have a job eventually working with the FBI as a criminal profiler, so the information I gather from these studies would definitely help me in this line of work.  A person will be better off not only in their professional life but their personal life as well with the more they know about the human psyche. Everyone in this world thinks differently but I am a firm believer that people that are similar have a similar thought process.  They may not have the same line of thinking but they have the same process to get to their conclusion.  I already listed a major plus that this research project would have for my future career, so now let me tell you where it will help me in my personal life.  When people are in a bad situation they make rash decisions that may not be the best ones, but they seemed to be the best at the moment.  Some people find themselves in trouble because of these decisions.  Upon having a firm grasp on different thought processes and the reasoning that someone selected to do something a particular way, I would love to advocate for the people that find themselves in trouble, on my own time.  Help them to justify their reasoning in why they selected to react in a certain situation.  The only example I can offer for this is a poor one but let me explain it to you anyhow.  A single mother comes home from work with her two small children.  She finds that an armed intruder is in her home.  She carries a small hand gun in her purse.  When the intruder finds that she has came home he pulls out his weapon with intentions of harming her.  She pulls out her gun and shoots the intruder before he has time to reach her and her children, killing him.  She was still in the doorway and could have simply turned and ran out the door, retreating back to her car.  She could have then drove to the neighbors and called the police.  But at that particular point in time that 

research (Photo credit: suttonhoo)

thought had never crossed her mind and now she is standing trial for murder.  I would like to be able to help her to explain, scientifically, why she chose to shoot instead of run.

            There are different kinds of methods that can be used to help a psychologist do research, and there are many more codes of ethics that need to be followed when doing so.  When a researcher puts the time and energy into conducting a completely ethical study, society as a whole stands to benefit from what is learned.  As a student, learning how these processes work, I hope to one day be able to perform a study that will help better this world!

           

             

References

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/research

, Gilbert, Wegner (2009), Psychology

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Exploring Research Methodology in the Criminal Justice System

by Elizabeth Hall

Introduction

Pond near the College of Research Methodology and Cognitive Science (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

All around us every day are examples of the results of scientific research that most of us probably take for granted.  Within the confines of the criminal justice system, research plays an important part in our society, as it is this research that ascertains what laws and policies we as citizens must obey or become part of the system when they are caught disobeying these laws and policies (Siegel, 2010).  All scientific research is governed by rules that apply to the scope and methodology that is allowed for academic and scientific credence, which is how we use inquiry to achieve positive changes in society. Sampling of research populations are utilized to keep things confidential and balanced.  One hypothesisthat we could explore is whether providing adequate mandatory mental health care in the correctional system, would reduce recidivism.  In this essay we will explore the methodology that is utilized in criminal justice research, including the survey, interview, observation, statistical data collection, and questionnaire methods along with applying them to our research hypothesis (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).

Survey Research Methodology and Application

Survey research is utilized in the criminal justice field often as noted by Babbie & Maxfield (2010), and often provides information that people would not readily admit, such as drug use or criminal history.  This type of research Driscoll (2011) holds that surveys are defined as a short list of questions that can be fill in the blank, multiple choice and even true or false entries that study participants fill out and return. These are both open and close ended questions.  Researchers formulate a survey based on the hypothesis of the project with questions designed to provide the best data to prove or disprove the hypothesis.  Surveys provide information about participant’s opinions and behaviors regarding the subject of the hypothesis (Driscoll, 2011).  Babbie & Maxfield (2010) hold that surveys can be self reporting or targeted, such as victimization surveys. 

Interview Research Methodology and Application

English: "Lebanon's Scientific Research Center" Organization's Logo (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Interview research according to Driscoll (2011) is defined as either one on one or small groups of participants answering questions to a researcher in person.  One issue with this type of methodology as opposed to the survey method is that it is slightly less confidential.  This is because participants must answer the questions directly to the researcher.  Babbie & Maxfield (2010) however, hold that more responses are gained by interview research methodology because they send interviewers out to record the responses, instead of just relying on participants to return a form on their own with an average of 80-85 percent return rate. 

Observation Research Methodology and Application

Babbie & Maxfield (2010), hold that the observation method of conducting social science research provides the most conclusive data.  Researchers who utilize this type of data collection may either participate minimally, partially, or fully, however they may not cross ethical lines while participating. For instance those participating in a study on theft as researchers should not steal.  The application of this methodology is that the researcher would insert themselves into the experiment based on the level of participation chosen and record data about the experience and subject during the process (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).     

Statistical DataCollection Research Methodology and Application

Statistical Data Collection involves the mathematical side of the social sciences and provides more empirical data notes Babbie & Maxfield (2010).  There are two types of statistical data used in these applications, descriptive and inferential.  Descriptive statistical data provides a quantitative summary of data while inferential statistics provide the means for researchers to draw conclusions based on their observation.  Descriptive data also called univariate data can be measured in frequency distributions or summary averages such as with mean, mode, and the median representatives of data groups.  Inferential statistics are usually drawn from a sampling of the entire range of the study population.  These are tested to measure accuracy with a test of statistical significance based on logic suggesting correlation between the x and y variables in the study (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010). 

Questionnaire Research Methodology and Application

While one might think that the survey and the questionnaire are the same thing, when it comes to scientific research they are very different (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).  A survey as discussed before has several different types of questions, but a questionnaire usually has a combination of statements and questions including open ended, multiple-choice, true or false, and the addition of contingency questions.  These can eliminate parts of the questionnaire for groups and allow for more variables in the research as they may skip certain parts and continue on to others based on previous answers.  This type of research can be administered in focus groups, by mail, in person, and by telephone, as can surveys (Driscoll, 2011).

Research Hypothesis

In this paper we are going to explore the hypothesis that follows: providing mandatory adequate psychological care in correctional facilities would reduce recidivism and overcrowding in the correctional system. In exploring this topic we will look at it using the statistical data collection and observation methodologies and how they would be utilized in the research.  The statistical data collection technique and the observation technique are used together to form conclusions based on inferential data.  Observational data can be obtained by the researcher observing the effects of increased psychological care measured in this study by transferring notes from the insertion of the researcher and staff into three correctional facilities as psychological counselors, and can be measured by the rate of recidivism amongst the inmate populations over the next ten years. The inmate files would contain this information which can be managed with a database or spreadsheet.  Inferential statistical data can then be mined for trends in crime patterns and recidivism rates out of the observational data gathered, and policy and laws can be enacted to positively affect society (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010). 

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Conclusion

Scientific research not only shapes the products we use, but even the policies and laws that govern our country (Driscoll, 2011).  Sociologists and criminologists use this research to study crime, including causation, trends, and behaviors using the research to help curb recidivism and promote good mental health in a modern society (Siegel, 2010).  The most utilized method of research in these fields is surveys, and the most relevant to the hypothesis.  We have explored the methodology that is utilized in criminal justice research, including the survey, interview, observation, statistical data collection, and questionnaire methods along with applying them to our research hypothesis (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).

References:

Babbie, E., & Maxfield, M.G., (2010).  Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology.  Second Edition.  United States, Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Driscoll, D.L. (2011).  Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews.  Retrieved From: http://wac.colostate.edu/books/writingspaces2/driscoll--introduction-to-primary-research.pdf

Siegel, L.J. (2010).  Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies.  Tenth Edition.  Belmont:    

             Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

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