Analysis Essay Neutralization Theory

by Tabetha Cooper

Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

“Everyone does it.”  An excuse I am sure that we have all used in adolescence while trying to convince our parents of why we should be allowed to do something.  This is just one of the many excuses used to justify crime, according to the Neutralization Theory, one of the Social Process Theories.  Along with the Neutralization Theory this paper is also going to discuss Social Process Theory, how it pertains to crime, and how it has influenced public and social policies.

             As Siegel (2007) points out, criminal behavior is a result of people’s involvement with different organizations and institutions and their overall encounter’s with society, which is known at the Social Process Theory.  In other words people that are actively involved with others that abide by the law and have good morals are not going to participate in criminal or delinquent behaviors and people who maintain contact with criminals or other individuals who push the boundaries of the law are going to partake in like behaviors.  There are theories that fall under the Social Process Theory, such as Social Learning Theories (Differential Association Theory and Neutralization Theory), Social Control Theory, and Social Reaction Theory (also known as Labeling Theory).

A 1920s display comparing brain types to criminality. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

            The Neutralization Theory simply states that no person is completely bad or completely good.  That criminals “drift” between criminal and conventional behaviors (Siegel, 2007, p. 154).  Matza (1964) defined drifting as people swaying from “one extreme behavior to another.” (http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/matza.htm).  Drifting behavior can be classified as soft determinism, which is the belief that criminality is both chosen by the criminal and determined by nature.  A person chooses to commit crime but they believe that obeying law is what is supposed to be done.  People drift in and out of crime because criminal behaviors are not acceptable in every situation.  These people feel that they are restricted by law and “shun” criminal behaviors all the while participating in those same delinquent or criminal behaviors themselves (DeMelo, 2001).  Matza (1964) feels that these people live in a “continuum” between freedom and restraint.

To keep guilt at bay, or neutralizing it, criminals use justifications that convince them that their behavior is acceptable. These excuses are called neutralization techniques.  The first is denial of responsibility, where a person convinces themselves that they had no choice but to do it, an “it wasn’t my fault” attitude.  The next is denial of injury which is when the person committing a crime uses the excuse that they weren’t hurting anyone, an “it isn’t a big deal” type of attitude.  Then there is denial of victim, where the criminal feels that they committed the crime against someone who deserved it, a “he had it coming” view.  The next is condemnation of condemners, where the person believes that they person scalding them is only doing so because they have already done the same thing themselves or wish they could do it.  The last is the appeal to higher loyalties, where the delinquent commits the act because he feels that he has to, due to expectations of his peers or needs of his family, seen like “mom needed to pay the electric bill.” (Siegel, 2007, p. 154-155 & Topalli, 2006, p. 476-477).  The neutralization theory can explain why criminals are believed to age out of crime, these people mature and these excuses are no longer valid.

Throughout time Social Process Theories have affected public and social policies.  According to Siegel (2007) these theories have been utilized in community action policies as well as treatment institutions.  An example of a policy that has been influenced by these theories is the diversion program, a program set up to keep criminals out of the prison system.  In a diversion program an offender is sentenced to some sort of treatment program.  Say a man was arrest for possession of oxycodone; he can be sentenced to a rehabilitation center instead of going to jail, with the condition that he completes the program.  Another example is restitution, which is where an offender is given the option of paying back the victim or community either with money or through community service.  Say a woman was in a non-injury car accident, but she didn’t have any insurance.  She may be sentenced to probation and restitution in the amount of the damages she caused to the other person’s vehicle.

Social Process Theories tend to focus on why people don’t commit crimes verses other theories of criminology that focuses on why people do commit crimes (Sellers, 2010).  The Social Process Theory believes that people who associate with law abiding people will abide by the law and vice versa.  That criminal and delinquent behavior is determined by whom a person associates with.  It has been established that the Neutralization Theory was based on the fact that people who come from a law abiding community but make friends with deviants and criminals can “drift” between behavior roles, neutralizing their guilt of criminal behavior by justifying it.  It is clear that the different Social Process Theories has affected policies in the justice system.  It can be foreseen that additional policies will be implemented based on these theories.

  

References

DeMelo, D. (2001) about: Tabs. Retrieved February 23, 2010, from

http://www.umsl.edu/~keelr/200/Diane_Demelo/diane.pdf

Matza, D... (1964) Delinquency and drift - Books. Retrieved February 23, 2010, from

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Nw_zNXfHkkQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Delinquency+and+Drift+(1964),+David+Matza&ots=f6CVIjne_x&sig=_dIp3PD5kKpv5h2qR31wClgfoo8#v=onepage&q=DelinquencyandDrift(1964)%2CDavidMatza&f=false

Siegel, L. J. (2007). Criminology: The Core (3^rd Ed.). Belmont, Ca. Cengage Learning

Topalli, Vokan. (2006) The Seductive Nature of Autotelic Crime:  How Neutralization Theory Serves as a

Boundary Condition for Understanding Hardcore Street Offending. Retrieved February 24, 2010,

From http://chhs.gsu.edu/cj/docs/topalli_neutralizationtheory.pdf

Unknown. (unknown) David Matza. Retrieved February 23, 2010, from

http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/matza.htm

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Analysis of Criminological Theory Relating to Organized Crime, John Gotti and Gang Organizations

English: The Seal of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation. For more information, see here. Español: El escudo del Buró Federal de Investigaciones (FBI). Para obtener más información, véase aquí (Inglés). (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

by Elizabeth Hall

Introduction

Criminology is the study of crime, and criminologists have been developing theories for decades about why people commit crimes (Siegel, 2010).  Organized crime is no different, and there are many different theories falling into both Trait Theory and Social StructureTheory categories to explain the actions of others.  According to Abadinsky (2009) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (2007), John Gotti “The Teflon Don” encompassed more media attention by himself than any other organized crime figure in history as he ran his organization in the traditional patron-client network style.  The bureaucratic-corporate style as used by gangs will also be explored as we look at theory related to gang activity and discuss how the Gangster Disciples fit these theories, comparing and contrasting criminological theory of both styles of organized crime organizations.

Organized Crime Agency of British Columbia (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Social Structure Theories

The theories based on social structure maintain that people commit crimes because of the stratification of the wealth and privileges available to the population (Siegel, 2010).  This is particularly true under the capitalism system that the United States utilizes.  Although all of the theories in the sociological school of thought hold that the main reason people commit crimes is because they are poor, each one has different ideas on how this condition of poverty plays into criminal behavior (Siegel, 2010).  In other words, it means that the socioeconomic conditions of society are the reason we have crime.

Gangsters: Organized Crime (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

 We will begin by exploring Strain Theory(Siegel, 2010), and just how that ties in to being poor using reason of self-justification of crime.  Abadinsky (2009) covers the Theory of Anomie that, began with Emile Durkheim, and developed further by Robert Merton suggests that as we feel anomie or strain based on lack of opportunity to achieve social mobility, people turn to criminal activity to attain the goal.  In the United States, Siegel (2008) states that over 37 million people live at or below the poverty level, which translates into the real world terms of dilapidated neighborhoods, poor health care, less desires to achieve means legally, and less opportunity for the people that live in these conditions.  Criminal activity is their way of evening the odds according to this theory and organized crime is just how the immigrant population found the road to prosperity in the past.  Today this is also a problem in non-immigrant communities as well, as the groups achieve upward social mobility paving the way for others to take their places.

Al Capone. Mugshot information from Science and Society Picture Gallery: Al Capone (1899-1947), American gangster, 17 June 1931. 'Al Capone sent to prison. This picture shows the Bertillon photographs of Capone made by the US Dept of Justice. His rogue's gallery number is C 28169'. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Next, we will look at what Differential Association Theory implies.  This theory popularized by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (Siegel, 2008), maintains that people under strain, and in areas of social disorganization will form subcultures.  This in turn promotes gang activity to form.  These subcultures band together, and in order to reduce the strain turn to criminal activity.  The joining inevitably results in a gang mentality, which allows people to adhere to the structure and rules that the gang requires. 

Deviant Subculture Theory, introduced as a reason that youth from lower class neighborhoods commit crime in 1955, by Albert Cohen (Siegel, 2008).  The theory suggests that youth use their subculture as a way to rebel against societal regulations set by the middle class.  What Cohen suggests is that, because they cannot achieve normal standards of success they reach frustration by this status.  Once the frustration level has been reached, they use the subculture formed to rebel against societal norms (Siegel, 2008).

Edwin Sutherland, who maintained that anyone could commit criminal acts regardless of class, social standing, or any other factor according to Abadinsky (2009), introduced Differential Opportunity Theory.  The main idea is that crime is chosen when the benefits outweigh the costs of the punishment.  He holds that this type of behavior is learned from those we associate ourselves with, and that it also comes from conforming to the beliefs, ideals, and regulations set forth by the teacher, or from social engagement with others.  This means that according to this theory, crime is a personal choice for everyone (Siegel, 2010). 

Mugshot of Charles Luciano at 1936,Italian-American mobster (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Social Control Theory is much like differential opportunity theory in the fact that the main tenet also states that criminal activity is profitable and alluring. Abadinsky (2009) states that, the community decides societal norms, and acceptable behaviors for people to follow.  What this theory looks at in criminology is why people would choose not to commit criminal acts.  The answer chosen is that morals play a factor.  Some people do not commit crimes out of a sense of moral decency, and others conform to the conventional morals of society (Siegel, 2008) 

Ethnic Succession Theory is different from the others, as it explains why some groups of people begin in organized crime and then later move into legitimate business ventures.  This theory looks at crime as a means to an end, which, once reached, is no longer needed.  The Jewish involvement in organized crime in America is a great example of this.  Unlike the Italians, the Jewish people value education and religion as the most important goals to pursue.  While they began in organized crime in order to achieve upward social mobility, the people willing to commit crimes for easy money fell away once there were legitimate avenues for success. As one group leaves the life of committing crimes for social mobility, another group moves in, as we can see in modern times with the entrance of Asian, Hispanic, and Black criminal activity more prevalent than the Italians, Jews, and Irish of yesteryear (Abadinsky, 2009). 

Trait Theory

Psychoanalytical Theory is probably the most well known theory, as most have heard of Sigmund Freud.  This theory, which has changed over the years, mainly holds that our unconscious thoughts and feelings at early stages of life denote how we will react to strain and societal pressures according to Abadinsky (2009).   This theory deals with normal and abnormal behavior by explaining that it is our balance of our id, ego, and superego, which represent our states of unconscious thoughts, which keep us within normal or abnormal behavior.  The main thought is that this happens in our formative years and that we do not have control of this. 

English: Mugshot of famous US organized crime figure. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Behavioral Theory forces the development of criminal activity back on individuals and society by maintaining that we learn criminal behavior from our environmental and social interactions.  Operant conditioning is the method that this message is delivered as the theory states that behavior is denoted by the punishment and reward system.  The choice to act criminally or not is based on whether the reward is greater than the punishment.  This theory holds that if we live in a community that rewards criminal behavior with respect instead of rejecting the behavior there is a lack of positive reinforcement for good behavior, and we learn from those around us that we admire to act criminally (Abadinsky, 2009). 

Theory Fitting John Gotti Criminal Development

English: This FBI-document of 1947 recommends that "one Jack Rubenstein of Chicago" should not be called to testify for the Committee on Unamerican Activities, for he is working for Congressman Richard M. Nixon. According to the Warren Commission, Ruby had no connections with Oswald, Organized Crime or the Government. No wonder the header reads "This is sensitive". (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The theory that best explains John Gotti’s involvement in organized crime is Sutherland’s Differential Opportunity Theory.   This is because along with his earlier involvement with gangs and the neighborhood he grew up in.  During the 1940’s Italian communities still banded together in Italian neighborhoods, where the mafia was already present.  The community with the exception of the criminal element was poor, and the opportunities for social advancement not the same as that of other communities, particularly the average white Anglo Saxon community.  The social engagement with others included respect in the community for those in the Mafia, as they often provided for the community where society would not.  The behavior is learned from the early gang association along with accepting the rules that the mafia set forth and Mr. Gotti excelled in this environment.  

Jerome Skolnick and Types of Gangs

Abadinsky (2009), reports that Jerome Skolnick identified two types of gangs in his work on strain theory.  These are cultural and entrepreneurial gangs and operate for two different reasons.  Cultural gangs strongly identify with the neighborhood that they reside in, and may be involved in drug activity for their monetary gain along with other activity.  On the other hand, entrepreneurial gangs operate for the purposes of distributing drugs. Cultural gangs are more identified with the neighborhood, recruiting and maintaining membership based on loyalty to the community.  Entrepreneurial gangs have no real loyalty, and operate solely based on continued revenue for the group (Abadinsky, 2009). 

Gangster Disciples and Criminological Theory

The criminological theory that best fits the growth of the Gangster Disciples would be Robert Merton’s Theory of Anomie.   This theory states that those experiencing strain or anomie because of lack of opportunity to achieve upward social mobility, turn to crime to achieve the goals other obtain with legitimate means.  This is particularly true within the African American community, as even with all of the advances of the Civil Rights era, even today there is not necessarily equality between the races.  Those who grow up in poor inner city neighborhoods often do not see any way out of the neighborhoods without criminal activity because opportunities to education decent education are not available to all ( Siegel, 2010).

Conclusion

Criminologists study all forms of crime, including organized crime, and develop theories as to why someone might either choose to commit a crime or not.  These theories are designed to fit most types of crimes and explain different aspects of organized crime depending on the aspect covered.  As we can see, different theories fit different types of criminals such as the difference between John Gotti with the mafia, and gang activity such as that with the Gangster Disciples.  Criminologists work to provide these theories so that those who make policy can adjust those policies accordingly to changes in the climate of crime.  

  

References

Abadinsky, H. (2009).  Organized crime (9th Ed.).  Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
ISBN: 0-495-59966-2

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (2007).  A Byte Out of History: John Gotti: How We Made the Charges Stick.  Retrieved From: http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/april/gotti040207

Siegel, L. J. (2008).  Criminology: The Core.  Third Edition.  Belmont, Ca. Cengage Learning ISBN:  13-978-0-495-09477-7

Siegel, L.J. (2010).  Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies.  Tenth Edition.  Belmont:    

             Wadsworth Cengage Learning.  ISBN: 13-978-0-495-60013-8

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Criminological Theory and Implications on Public Policy

by Elizabeth Hall

English: Deterrence theory model 1. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The role of criminologists in our society is to study data and form theories on how to deter crime, based on they find in that data.  They then advise criminal justice policy makers on how to implement these theories into a public (social) policy.  The concept of public policy is based on a series of theories constituted by criminologists and sociologist, and put into practice by lawmakers.  Each theory is group is comprised of its own subset of theories.  Choice theory, trait theory, social structure theory, social process theory, and developmental theory all contributed to the formation of social policy.  Choice theory has four base theories, which have separate policy implications: rational choice, general deterrence, specific deterrence, and incapacitation theories.  Trait theory is comprised of two major themes, with policy factors: primary prevention programs, and secondary prevention programs.  Social structure theory deals with concepts such as conventional rewards and values of American society, and dealing with the stratification that our capitalist society dictates.  Social process theory, which is concerned with the way people learn crime through each other, and argues that if criminal behavior is learned, then it can be unlearned as well.  Developmental theory policy involves multisystemic treatments aimed at children who are at risk for turning to criminality.  It is through understanding each of these theory groups and the subsets of theories that mold them that you will have an appreciation of how social policy is formed, and begin to see amendments needed in these policies to make them work efficiently.  (Siegel, 2010)

Choice Theory

Choice theory has four policy based theories which are established on the “just desert” concept that severe punishment deters crime.  These theories are rational choice, general deterrence, specific deterrence, and incapacitation theories.  Rational choice theory states that crime is based on a person weighing what they personally need or want against their own situation and whether or not the risks are worth the benefits of committing the crime.  General deterrence theory digs deeper into the risks versus benefits of committing the crime.  It also believes that if punishment for a crime is severe, certain, and swift that most people would deem the risks far greater than the benefits.  Specific Deterrence focuses in on sever punishments to make sure the offender learns their lesson and never commits the crime again.  Incapacitation theory states that by keeping criminals out of general population reduces the rates of crime.  In essence, choice theory plays a part in building social policy because it makes sure that society knows that crime is not acceptable to the society that we currently live in. (Siegel, 2008)

Trait Theory

Trait theory is based on the premise that crime is committed because criminals have either mental or physical defects.  The theories are composed of: biological trait theory which supposes that biochemical genetic, and neurophysiologic conditions cause crime, and psychological trait theory which assumes that mental issues are the causation of crime   Public policies developed from these theories include primary prevention programs which focus on the treatment of individual personal issues and defects before they display themselves through criminal activities, and secondary prevention programs which focus on psychological therapy to prevent people from violating laws, and tertiary programs which focus on helping criminals make their way back to operating under normal social rules and conventions. It is through these policies that programs such as mental health associations, family therapy groups, and substance abuse clinics have been opened.  It is also through these polices, that rehabilitation programs such as halfway houses, anger management classes, other programs have been implemented throughout our criminal justice system spanning the entire course of criminal development from preventing children from turning to crime in the first place, to rehabilitation of criminals already incarcerated in our prisons and jails.  (Siegel, 2008)

Social Structure Theory

Social structure theorists believe that it is the socioeconomic structure of our society, which causes crime.  These theories focus on the social and economic structures of our society working together to cause lower class people to turn to crime to achieve goals and success because they do not have conventional means to do so.  These theories fall into three categories: social disorganization, which deals with the actual stratification of our society, strain theory that discusses the difference in classes, and the means they have to achieve success.  There is also cultural deviance, which argues that people who turn to criminality do so for relief of the strain caused by not having the means to attain conventional success.  This causes them to form their own subcultures, which accept and even condone criminal behavior.  Policy implementations on social structure theory have been important to the lower class society, with programs such as welfare, Aid to Dependent Children, food stamps, Head Start programs, neighborhood self help legal services, extra help with education, and job opportunities, and recreational programs to children who would not have access to these without federal help.  (Siegel, 2010)

Social Process Theory

These theories are based on the principle t people having adverse relationships with family, peers, and institutions they are around on a normal basis cause crime.  Family relationships play a large part in deciding criminality.  If the relationships are positive then anyone can succeed within the normal boundaries of law.  It is when these relationships are negative that the criminality is formed.  Since they cannot realistically expect to succeed in the acceptable ways of society, committing crimes may be their only practical way to achieve success sought after by most members of American society.  This subgroup of theories includes, social learning which denotes that criminals learn criminal behavior from other criminals.  Differential association theory proposes that people learn to commit crime through antisocial definitions.  Neutralization theory, where criminals drift between conventional acceptable behaviors and criminal behavior learning to rationalize crime and their behavior, by neutralizing moral restraints with ideas such as the victim had it coming to them.  Social reaction theory (Labeling Theory) states that people enter into criminality when labeled negatively for behavior committed or social groups one may belong in.  It goes on to assume that once labeled, always labeled, therefore people organize their personalities around the label.  Social control theorists follow the logic that we are all born potential criminals, and that it is our ties to conventional society, that keep most everyone from committing crime.  These ties are formed through family, peers, mentors, and institutions, and when these social bonds do not exist, it is easier for people to commit crime.  Implications of policy effects more young people than already hardened criminals, because after the age of eighteen, our impressionable years are over, and most people become set in their ways and are not prone to unlearn their behaviors.  These programs teach young offenders about the dangers associated with drug use and how to survive in society without resorting to criminality, coupled with how to achieve success in school.  Theories regarding labeling have caused criminologists to warn society about the dangers of negative labels, and diversion programs which attempt to rehabilitate people in respect to their crimes, such as alcohol and drug treatment programs.  (Siegel, 2010)

Developmental Theory

Developmental theory attempts to reach younger people throughout the course of their entire lives to prevent criminality from taking place.  These are made up of life course theories which argue that social and personal traits change throughout their lives, and Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP), which assumes that anyone with antisocial tendencies are prone to commit antisocial acts.  The theories also include the general theory of crime and delinquency, which states that there are different life domains, which shape criminality, and latent trait theories, which follow the thought that we have master traits that influence our criminal behavior.  Another theory is the general theory of crime that supports the school of thought that the lack of self-control causes crime.  Still another theory called differential coercion theory, which denotes that individuals exposed to environments of intimidation and crime develop defects of a psychological and social nature; influencing the probability that a person will commit crime.  Policy implementations developed through developmental theory involve the attempt to reach children who are at risk as early as preschool, and certainly through their developmental years, including but not limited to: The Boys and Girls Clubs of America, substance abuse prevention programs, and Fast Track.  All of these programs are designed to deter criminality from becoming a factor in someone’s life at all.  (Siegel, 2010)

Political and Practical Implementation Problems Along with Possible Solutions

In our country, government, whether at the local, state, or national levels, is charged with the task of implementing policies to define the ideas that our society deems acceptable.  Because people and our society continue to evolve, our public policies constantly need updating to reflect on the times.  In doing this, our lawmakers have been increasingly challenged to implement policies that will become law that considers all people’s views.  Because of the differing views in Washington D.C.’s dog eat dog style of politics and differences in the views of our political parties, often policies are watered down, changed, or not passed at all because our lawmakers cannot seem to agree.  Another problem is in order to get anything done people operate on a quid pro quo basis, meaning that if you want your policy passed, you must also help me pass mine; even if it means adding mine to yours to get it done.  Issues with the problem of quid pro quo, cross over into the other issues of policy implementation.  This occurs at the time of allocating funds to projects.  Instead of focus revolving around the bill at hand, congress wastes millions of taxpayer dollars arguing over pork barrel spending programs that they intend to add discretely into these policies.  In order to change this situation, American people need to convey to our lawmakers that we have had enough.  That if these processes are not simplified, and pork barrel spending does not cease to be a problem in our policy making decisions, we will elect new candidates which will abandon their notions that their party has the only right way to proceed, and learn to work together.  This in effect will make our society less divided, more cohesive, and stronger in our beliefs.  Making sure that funding goes to the proper programs remains a problem for those involving the running of the programs.  When funding is allocated, often, it is wasted on extra projects instead of going only to the main premise of the program.  (Cannon, 2009)

Conclusion

While public policy plays an extremely important role in American society, and these policies have shown to be effective tools in deterring crime, problems still exist in the implementation of the policies.  These problems include narrow-minded policy makers, and making sure that there is enough funding, to actually support the program’s intended cause.  In order to change this, the American public will have to become more involved in the process of electing our public officials, thereby sending the message that you must be on our side, instead of big businesses and people serving their own interests, if you want to hold public office in our country.

References

Cannon, R. (2009).  Understanding Public Policy and Public Policy Advocates.  Retrieved from http://www.publicpolicyadvocates.org/

Siegel, L. J. (2008).  Criminology: The Core.  Third Edition.  Belmont, Ca. Cengage Learning

Siegel, L.J. (2010).  Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies.  Tenth Edition.  Belmont:    

             Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

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Theoretical Perspectives to Understand and Explain Criminal Behavior

 by Elizabeth Hall

Jeremy Bentham, by Henry William Pickersgill (died 1875). See source website for additional information. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Introduction

Cesare Beccaria (1738 - 1794) was one of the greatest writers of the Italian Age of Enlightenment. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The first theoretical perspectives on crime to be recognized originated around 1764 according to Siegel (2010), with the classical perspective.  Founded by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, the perspective holds that society can deter crime when the consequences of crime are absolute, harsh, and quickly administered.  They felt that people choose to commit crime after they considered the positive and negative aspects of the crime, and found that the positives outweigh the consequences. Modern classical theory is called choice theory.  This perspective was the major influence on our penal system for the next two hundred years, until late into the 19^th century, giving way to positivism and the scientific method of studying human behavior and society.  It is from this positivism noted by August Comte, considered the founder of sociology, it is in this last stage that our current classifications of theoretical perspectives on crime have emerged.  These theories, grouped into four categories, which are; sociological theories, biological theories, psychological theories, and social-psychological theories, represent different causes of crime.  (Siegel, 2010)

The Sociological Theories

Sociological theories maintain that crime is a result of social and or cultural forces that are outside of any particular individual and are in existence before any criminal behavior is attempted or carried out.  The sociological theorists subdivide into two groups, structural and sub-cultural.  Structural theorists believe that certain groups or classes are not equal to others in their opportunities to achieve societal goals such as wealth, and power.  Some examples of these theories, according to Siegel (2010) stem from the Marxist/Conflict theory, founded by Karl Marx, Willem Bonger, Ralph Dahrendorf, and George Vold.  (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006)

This subset of theories states that the reason we have crime is class struggles, because our

A portrait of Karl Marx. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

 system of capitalism places emphasis on competition, wealth and power, thereby making crime inevitable as people compete for these values.  One modern theory subset is restorative justice, a system that encompasses a broad spectrum of “programs and practices” that mean that society recognizes and deals with making offenders accountable for their actions and to right the harms caused by their crimes, while also effectively, dealing with what victims ultimately need to move on as well.  Sometimes this entails victims’ families getting to talk to the offender about the incident, which allows for offender, community, and victim healing.  (Siegel, 2010)   

Another social structural theory subset is strain theory.  Strain theorists believe that because most people share similar values, but are not in equal in ability to obtain these values due to stratification of the socioeconomic classes. Emile Durkheim began the strain theory viewpoint with his concept of anomie, meaning societal rules of behavior including values, customs, and norms are broken or not working in times of fast-paced social transformations, or disasters like wartime or periods of food shortages.  Shifts in cultural values during extreme change, sow the seeds for social turmoil. Robert Merton applied Durkheim’s social ideas to the study of crime creating the theory of anomie.  This theory asserts that because legal means to obtain societal values are stratified among the classes, the strain that results from the lower classes inability to achieve these goals produces anomie.  (Siegel, 2008)

Emile Durkheim (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Another theory in this subset concerned with Durkheim’s work is the theory of differential opportunity discussed in their book Delinquency and Opportunity by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, notes (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006).  Published in 1960 this theory asserts that even though the lower class have the same values as the middle and upper classes and wish to succeed in a legal fashion are not able to because they are deprived of legal opportunity by society. It holds that people who grow up in the poverty-stricken congested decaying areas still desire middle class values and dreams, so crime is just a means to an end. This theory, like the sub-cultural theory is represented in our society by the rapid rise of gangs in our cities and suburbs.  (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006)

Sub-cultural theories or cultural deviance theories, rather, is the third leg of social structure theories resting on a combination of strain and social disorganization.  This theory is used to explain deteriorated neighborhoods and how the people living in them react to isolation from the middle and upper classes, and depravation due to economic inequities.  To escape the draining effect of frustration and disheartenment of their daily lives, the lower class people create sub-cultures with their own value systems, beliefs, and rules.  Where the upper and middle class value education, hard work, and in the middle class delayed gratification, the sub-cultures of the lower classed people value other things such as how tough a person is, or whether they take risks, or have “street smarts”.  According to Siegel (2010) this theory began in 1938 by Thorsten Sellin’s book Culture Conflict and Crime linking cultural adaptation to crime through the theory of conduct norms.  Sellin’s asserts that the sub-cultures maintain their own standards of rules and normal conduct for daily living. This led to Walter Miller’s focal concerns theory in 1958 stating that lower class focal concerns endorse criminal behavior.  According to Siegel (2010), focal concernconformity plays a principle role in the lives of lower class people and consist of the ability to cause trouble, physical and spiritual toughness, street savvy, excitement, fate, and autonomy.

In 1955, Albert Cohen developed the theory of deviant sub-cultures, which attests that when lower class youths cannot feasibly obtain the middle class success, they remonstrate against it, valuing the exact opposite of middle class success.  In our times, we can recognize this in the numbers of gangs in our society.  According to (Siegel, 2010) in describing this theory, it is our socialization process, which causes the formation of the deviant subculture.

The Biological Theories

Biological theorists believe that genetic influences, biochemical abnormalities, and neuropsychological reasons are the reasons for crime (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006).  These theories were founded on the premise of Cesare Lombroso’s work, which professed that criminals are born bad.  One of the theories relates that it is biochemical conditions such as diet, chemical and mineral influences, blood sugar, and hormonal influences are the reason for crime.  Biochemical theorists say that every person is different, and the way that our individual bodies react to influences within our own chemistry and the environmental factors cause criminals to behave antisocially.  (Siegel, 2010)

Other biological theorists conclude that it is neurological and physical anomalies, which cause people to commit crime.  According to Siegel (2010), violent offenders have been linked to damage “in the prefrontal lobes, thalamus, hypothalamus, medial temporal lobes, superior parietal and left angular gyrus areas of the brain”.  These defects can appear in many forms such as minimal brain dysfunction, learning disabilities, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, tumors, lesions, injuries, diseases such as epilepsy, and brain chemistry.  Some theorists have also linked genetics to crime, studying parental deviance and twin behavior.  Studies regarding parental deviance have found that there is some relevance to this theory but cannot prove that it is genetic and not upbringing causing the results.  This is the same with the twin studies because the reasons for the similarities might be due to the same upbringing.  (Siegel, 2010)

The Psychological Theories

Sigmund Freud (Photo credit: wordscraft)

Psychological crime theories infer that crime is the result of individual personality traits of the criminal.  There are two major theories, the psychodynamic theory, and cognitive theory.  The psychodynamic theorists think that, like Sigmund Freud’s theory, crime is caused by people with weak egos and superegos no control over their id, with antisocial tendencies, which will end up committing crime.  Freud believed that things that happened to us in our formative years affect people.  (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006)

Cognitive theory, founded by Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener, and William James, operated on the presumption that it is our mental processes, and how individuals comprehend, and psychologically characterize the world around them.  It is because every individual processes the world around them differently, and that changes occur as we mature that this theory explains the aging out process effectively, and covers more areas of crime.  In modern cognitive theory there are several different areas theorists focus on, the moral development school of thought concerns itself with how individuals morally characterize themselves.  The humanistic view approaches theory, emphasizing self-awareness and feelings, while the information processing school focuses on how we process, code, gather, and employ information to make decisions.  (Siegel, 2010)

The Social-Psychological Theories

The group of theories labeled social-psychological theories attempts to provide a connection between the psychological, environmental, and social schools of thought.  They are also known as social process theories, representing the fact that these theorists believe that it is a process we go through that enables us to commit crimes. There are two groups of social process theory, separated by direct learning and control.  Social learning, labeling theory, control theory, and their subsets are what we consider social process theories.  (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 200

Robert K. Merton (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

6)

Differential association reinforcement theory, according to Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., and Nietzel, M.T. (2006), is a learning theory developed by Edwin H. Sutherland.  According to this theory, criminal behavior stems from social environments encouraging criminal behavior.  Furthered by B.F. Skinner and operant conditioning, the differential association reinforcement theory holds that crime is the result of operant conditioning, which is the reinforcement of the behavior that outweighs any consequences of the action, and modeling behavior.  This theory effectively explains why some people of affluence commit crimes, but lacks an explanation when it comes to violent impulsive behaviors, and why some people are more prone than others, to commit crimes at all.  (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006)

Social learning theorists believe that crime is the product of a process called behavior modeling according to Siegel (2010).  The most noted of these theorists is Albert Bandura, who studied children’s reactions to witnessing adult aggression to BoBo dolls.  He conducted a study, and proved that children learn aggressive behaviors just from watching adults behave aggressively.  This theory holds that observational learning is more successful than differential association, (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006).  These theorists believe that aggressive behavior is learned behavior, stemming from family interaction, environmental experiences, and the mass media.  (Siegel, 2010)

Albert Bandura (Photo credit: josemota)

Labeling theory looks at the careers of criminals as being a product of disparaging societal relations and disgracing social encounters and the subjective nature of the law.  The key tenets of the theory are as follows: those who currently are making the laws bias the criminal natures of certain behaviors.  This means that what is considered to be a crime is only such because people label the behavior as a crime.  People are labeled as well as acts.  Whether the behavior is positive or negative, prejudiced explanation of behavior is required.  The theory also works off the assumption that once one is labeled, as for example, a pothead, meaning a person who smokes marijuana, the rest of their life will follow suit as a pothead with all of the social stigmatization that follows that association.  It also suggests that lawmakers can change what deems an act to be illegal, to suit their own needs, as was the case with marijuana. (Siegel, 2007)

Control theorists believe that people are naturally antisocial, unless taught not to be by other people.  The assumption is that some people never form adequate social bonds therefore never learn or adjust internally to acceptable behaviors.  They believe that socialization is the reason for crime and focus on why people choose not to commit crime.  Social control and containment theories are the subsets of control theory. 

Social control theory assumes that all people have the ability and drive to commit crime and that there are more than ample opportunities to commit crimes in modern society.  Travis Hirschi, according to Siegel (2010), makes a connection with the things that attach us to society such as our personal relationships.  His theory asserts that while all people are naturally predisposed to commit crime, it is the fear of what other people would think that prevents us all from becoming criminals.  In the absence of good moral relationships with people who would frown on criminal behavior, we are all susceptible to criminality.  (Siegel, 2010)

Our attachments are formed on four levels, attachment, which is explained, as our sensitivity to others is the first level.  Commitment to the conventions of society is another, which leads to involvement in societal activities, and leaves little time for criminal behavior as the third element.  The last element is belief in cultural and moral values of our cultures, which plays a large role in keeping our criminal tendencies at bay.  Hirschi used self-reporting questionnaires to prove this theory, and his findings were consistent.  (Siegel, 2010)

Containment theory deals with the ideas of self-concept and crime.  Even back to 1951, notes Siegel (2010), sociologists, such as Albert Reiss, were studying delinquents, concluding that they all seem to have “weak egos”.  Walter Reckless is the actual founder of the containment theory that proposes that it is public demands and societal rules controlling crime through external containment.  He felt that if a society has well defined behavioral rules, encourages moral standings, and is assimilated well, as long as there is positive reinforcement, crime rates should go down.  The theory explains why some law-abiding citizens in high crime areas choose to obey the law but fails to explain groups such as gangs that organize around criminality.  (Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T., 2006)

Conclusion

There are many theories of crime, and they affect our policies and laws every day from each of the schools of thought. The implications of sociological policy can be seen in action observing our welfare systems and in undertakings as the Chicago Project, which attempted to organize the lower class.  Examples of psychological theory include family therapy organizations, mental health facilities, and substance abuse facilities all over the nation.  Biological practitioners have addressed learning disabilities, lighting, issued mood-altering drugs such as lithium, controlled diets, and performed psychosurgeries.  The implications of the social-psychological theories have changed the way we as a society look at criminals. Social learning theories have changed the way we treat criminals, and the educational system has been altered immensely by these theories.  The Head Start program is a good example of these changes.  Control theory has implications in the development of diversion programs for youths to prevent criminality, and in the post criminality phase where criminals have to pay restitution.  It seems that of all the theories, the social-psychological theories are best suited to reduce recidivism and crime, because they incorporate the physical, mental, and environmental elements of society at the same time instead of trying to ignore certain aspects and concentrate on just one.  (Siegel, 2010)

References:

Greene, E., Heibrun, K., Fortune, W.H., Nietzel, M.T. (2006).  Psychology and the Legal System (6^th Ed.).  Florence, Kentucky.  Cengage Learning

Siegel, L. J. (2007).  Criminology: The Core.  Third Edition.  Belmont, Ca. Cengage Learning

Siegel, L.J. (2010).  Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies.  Tenth Edition.  Belmont:    

             Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

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