A Closer Look at Police Technology

by Elizabeth Hall

Introduction

When we think of law enforcement officers of decades ago what readily comes to mind are the sheriffs of the Old West armed with a badge, a gun, and a deputy if he was lucky notes Foster (2000).  In modern policing there are sophisticated pieces of equipment developed by modern science and 

English: Mounted law enforcement (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

technology such as computers, software designed for specific functions to aid in investigation, radar, breathalyzers, thermal imaging systems, digital cameras, crime mapping tools and even our own cell phones and devices to investigate, obtain warrants, and convict criminals. With these advances in technology there are distinct advantages to an investigation, however there are also distinct disadvantages, as criminals have access to some of these tools as well (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008).  In this paper we will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computers and software has on law enforcement, along with some examples of how technology has been utilized both for and against law enforcement investigations. 

Advantages of Computers and Software in Investigation

Foster (2000) holds that during the Community Policing Era law enforcement technology turned to computers to aid in the new style of policing America.  These technologies added tools such as 

Seal of the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), USA. — “Servicing Our Citizens” (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD), the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), Enhanced 911 systems, and even the Automated Fingerprint Identity System are some of the real tools that law enforcement have at their disposal.  Schultz (2008) also lists technological tools that have enabled law enforcement to have information and databases at their disposal even when in their cars, and those that replace officers altogether such as cameras that record graffiti and vandalism, and photo enforcement systems which allow for crimes to be reported automatically in cases of vandalism or traffic violations, which the agency can then send out a traffic ticket complete with photo of car as proof or feed the data about the vandalism complete with photos in the their computers to aid in the investigation and apprehension of the vandals.  Thermal imaging cameras allow officers to monitor for suspects, number of people in the building, detect possible narcotics growing operations, and gather other data from afar gaining them the advantage of surprise when it is time to apprehend the criminals (Schultz, 2008). All of these tools allow for faster, safer law enforcement intervention into criminal investigation by shaving time off of individual evidence identification, suspect identification, dispatch of personnel, and validity of evidence in the courtroom by providing allowable visual evidence, or by allowing law enforcement to gain knowledge without detection by the criminals.    

Disadvantages of Computers and Software on Law Enforcement

While there are advantages to law enforcement with the advancement of technological tools, there are also disadvantages, as criminals have access to computers and software as well (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008). What makes it particularly disadvantageous to law enforcement is that by the nature of the internet and global accessibility these crimes are not impossible, but very difficult to trace.  Often crimes are committed from another country and prosecution requires multiple country cooperation to investigate and prosecute criminals.  Another difficulty is funding, as technology is always updating, and law enforcement budgeting may not allow for the rapid replacement of equipment, particularly in smaller agencies. What makes it particularly disadvantageous to law enforcement is that by the nature of the internet and global accessibility these crimes are not impossible, but very difficult to trace. With the technological advances of the computer and the ease of use of the internet, transnational and national criminals take advantage of these tools every day (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008). 

Ways to Utilize Technology to Commit a Crime

Criminalscan use computers and cell phones to commit fraud, identity theft, scams, hacking, stalking, bullying, harassment, child pornography violations, child enticement, narcotics distribution and manufacture, cell phone fraud, terrorism and even last but certainly not least, organized crime (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008).   Deirmenjian (2002) speaks of the ease which pedophiles can trade, sell or buy photos, belong to private forums, groups and chat rooms, and generally indulge in their fantasies.  A simple thing as email can be used in the commission of cyberstalking, harassment, or even to used to threaten someone, along with scams designed to gain personal information or funds from a person by proclaiming they won the lottery, are due an inheritance, have governmental oversight funds to disburse, or a sick relative, which are known as advance fee scams.  Identity fraud is also connected with this as some of them ask you for personal information which can then be sold or utilized later.  Organized crime groups can sell stolen merchandise, narcotics, monitor their gambling and loan sharking operations, and even recruit members over the internet (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008).  

Case Example of Criminal Enterprise with Computers

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) (2012) reports that a large ring of Tech Support Scams was discovered originating out of India which they are launching a major offensive and have succeeded in locking the assets of at least six enterprises.  The criminals use phones and computers to commit the crimes by posing as legitimate telemarketers from major companies, talking unsuspecting victims into believing that their computer needs to be rid of spy and malware.  The victims would then

English: Washington, D.C. headquarters of the Federal Trade Commission. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

 pay fees to the fake company representatives to allow them to then remotely access their computers and “fix” the problem.  With fees ranging from $49 to $450 per fix, they would direct the consumer to a software download allowing them to remotely download useless or free programs to the consumer machine (FTC, 2012).   

Case Example of Computers Aiding in Solving Crimes

Deirmenjian (2002) cites several cases where pedophiles were arrested and their own computers were not only utilized in the criminal activity, but also aided in the investigation of the crimes.  For example, a thirty eight year old male pedophile was caught trying to set up a meeting with a 13 year old girl, which turned out to be an officer posing as that minor.  He was caught when he turned up for the meeting.  Another case was that of a murderer out on parole who thought he was communicating with a mother who would allow him to sexually assault her teenage daughters.  Imagine his surprise when he landed back in jail for that one due to the anonymity of the internet, and his inability to control his impulses.

Conclusion

Technological advances in society have had both positive and negative effects on law enforcement in this country, although there have been huge strides in the positive effects (Foster, 2002).  Even though the commissions of some crimes are aided by the use of software, computers, and the internet, often these same tools can aid in the investigation, arrest, and prosecution of crime.  The benefits of information sharing between our law enforcement agencies through databases like AFIS and CODIS, the fingerprint and DNA databases, crime and criminal information such as that found on NCIC, and advances in technology such as vandalism systems and photo enforcement systems save our officers time and keep them engaged and in action at the same time by making information available to them in their cars at their fingertips instead of in a records room sorting through fingerprint cards.  This far outweighs the disadvantages the criminals pose.

References:

Deirmenjian, J.M. MD, (2002).  Pedophilia on the Internet.  Journal of Forensic Science, Sept 2002.  Vol 47, № 5.  Retrieved From: http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Pedophilia_on_the_Internet.pdf

Federal Trade Commission, (FTC), (2012).  FTC Halts Massive Tech Support Scams.  Retrieved From: http://ftc.gov/opa/2012/10/pecon.shtm

Foster, R.E. (2000). Police Technology. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall

Knetzger, M. & Muraski, (2008).  Investigating High-Tech Crime.  New Jersey Prentice Hall, Pearson Education.  ISBN:  0-536-08577-3

Schultz, P.D., (2008).  The Future is Here: Technology in Police Departments.  The Police Chief, vol. LXXV, no. 6, June 2008.  Retrieved From: http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?article_id=1527&fuseaction=display&issue_id=62008

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Effective Tactical Analysis for Robbery Investigations

by Elizabeth Hall

Introduction

City X is besieged by multiple daytime robberiesinvolving multiple jurisdictions in the city. In the last year statistics show a 20% increase in robberies in general.   In order to effectively deal with this crime problem this agency will discuss what investigative steps should be taken to identify the sources of the problem.  We will also discuss what technological assistance may be needed; we will analyze the patterns of robberies committed during the day time, and come up with a plan for synthesizing the data.  After the patterns are identified and the data is synthesized we can decide what investigative units, equipment, and supplies are needed.  Once all of that is decided, we will look into acquiring funding to implement our strategic plan to reduce the daytime robberies in City X, and hopefully apprehend the person or persons responsible for the robberies.

Human blood droplets. An example of a forensics photograph of an imitation crime scene. A scale by a common object (United States Quarter) has been used. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Investigative Steps

When analyzing patterns and trends in crime there are several investigative steps that can be utilized to identify the source and implement strategic steps to deal with the trends (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004). These are,

1.      Review police reports from all jurisdictions

2.      Re-interview any witnesses found in the police reports

3.      Review all forensic evidence from the cases found within the police reports.

4.      Review any camera footage captured at the scenes.

5.      Review the tactical analysis of the police agencies within the city’s multiple jurisdictions for trends and similarities they have already found.

6.      Synthesize the data for easier review by querying the robberies and organizing the data by details such as MO, time of day, or location.

7.      Map the offenses

8.      Determine if we can borrow any manpower from the agencies involved.

9.      Call agencies surrounding the city to determine if there are any increases in their areas.

10.  Look at any zoning changes, large population changes, or new businesses that could be affecting the rates of these crimes.

The effective utilization of these investigative steps will allow us to step back and develop strategical plans to effectively use our resources as wisely as possible (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004).

Technological Assistance

Police agencies have come a long way since the days when everything was hand written and gone over piece by piece as noted by Foster (2000).  Some of the technical assistance that will be utilized in this strategic plan are fairly new tools brought on by the technological advances made with the invention of computers.   AFIS and NCIC are two databases maintained by law enforcement nationally which allow agencies to compare both arrest records and fingerprints to quickly locate matches or suspects recently arrested or released.  There will also be use of the Uniform Crime Report Data, and NIMBRS both which record incident reports.  Another technological tool that can be utilized is Geographical Information Software (GIS) that allows for analysts to create complex mapping data (International Association of Crime Analysts, (IACA), 2012.   

Analyzing the Robbery Pattern

The S.A.R.A. model of analytics is often used in law enforcement (Neighborhood Association of Michigan, 2000). There are four steps in this model, scanning, analyzing, response and assessment. Scanning is where you identify the problem, analyzing of course is where the raw data comes in.  Response is the strategic plans that are put into place, and assessment is where you decide if your plan is effective.  The first step in analyzing the robbery pattern is the gathering of raw data.  The data will be the police reports and tactical reports from the individual jurisdictions.  We will have to get them from each jurisdiction individually, and we need to examine at least the last five years to determine levels of change (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004).

GemIdent analyzing results using data analysis and visualization tools (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Synthesizing the Data and Data Conclusion

The next step would be to synthesize the data to get what we are looking for easily.  What this means is taking out the data that is not needed in order to look at the particulars of the crimes we are interested in.  Once the data is synthesized we would interview any witnesses listed in the individual robbery reports, go over any forensic evidence collected to see if anything was missed that could help, and review any camera footage for the same reasons (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004). Effectively we can measure the rate of change by dividing the number of robbery crimes by the population for each year looked at which would give us a per person comparison (Siegel, 2010). 

We can also measure the percentage of change in the last five years of robbery crimes by calculating the new data minus the old data, divided by the old data which would give us the percentage of change in robbery crimes. When we get the data the most effective way to manage this is to create a spreadsheet or database with all of the crime information by jurisdiction.  We can then drill down to separate the robberies from all of the other crimes reported.  The best way would be to arrange the data so that it can be sorted by jurisdiction, type of robbery, time of day, MO, and location, which will allow us to separate the data we are looking for easily (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004).

What we have found through this process is that there is an increase in all jurisdictions of property crimes in general and robberies have increased in the areas located on the major highway that runs through all of them.  The data shows that the city population has doubled from five years ago, and convenience store robberies account for most of the increase.  This coincides with the increase in these types of businesses as the neighborhoods have grown considerably.  The robberies were committed by different Part of the solution is to increase patrols, and maintain a higher police presence in the neighborhoods, at least until we can get the problem contained. 

Investigative Units Needed

In order to effectively execute our strategic planning we needed to use several different investigative units.  These are comprised of the individual crime analysis units of the jurisdictions, the investigative units of each jurisdiction, regular beat cops, and of course the forensics team.  The solution requires us to hire more patrol units, at least two per jurisdiction.  Each patrol unit is comprised of two officers, so we will need a total of ten new officers for the city.

Metro Transit Police (Photo credit: cliff1066™)

Equipment and Supplies Needed

To complete our evaluation of this problem, we needed GIS software to aid in our crime mapping, and computers to crunch the numbers and save us time.  We also used database software such as Goldmine in all of the jurisdictions to effectively be able to keep records management.  Microsoft Access is also useful in crime analysis and is used in many police organizations by their crime analysis units.  None of these software packages are effective if the persons using them are not trained, so we have to have training programs available as well (IACA, 2012).  In our strategical solution we need to hire more patrol officers to maintain a high police presence.  This also requires that we have more patrol cars and more spots in the training facility for law enforcement officers.

Acquiring Funding

When agencies need more equipment or personnel they must apply for grants or funding from agencies designed or this usually associated with the Department of Justice.  There are programs within the Office of Community Policing for funding equipment and personnel increases that can be applied for such as the Cops Hiring Program, and the Community Policing Development program (COPS, 2013).  The National Institute of Justice offers funding programs and grants for equipment purchases such as the Justice Association Grant Program which applies funding for equipment purchases and new personnel.  There is also programs for transferring federal surplus property to state and local agencies at the National Institute of Justice (n.d.).

Conclusion

3201 S Halsted's Traffic Analysis Zone (Photo credit: Steven Vance)

When looking at crimes from a law enforcement perspective, crime analysis units provide the most effective information.  This is because it is their job to keep track of the data collected and to provide the agencies with reports and planning to deal with the crime problems of the jurisdiction.  In this essay we looked at the robbery pattern of City X, and discovered that the population has had an explosion, along with the increase of robbery crimes.  The recommendation is to hire more patrol personnel to ensure a high police presence in the areas affected by this population increase. To do this we need to apply for funding with an agency such as the National Institute of Justice or the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services to afford the equipment and extra personnel needed to curb this problem. 

References:

Bruce, C.W., Hick, S.R., & Cooper, J.P. (2004).  Exploring Crime Analysis Reading on Essential             Skills.  International Association of Crime Analysts.  Overland Park, KS.

Community Oriented Policing Services, (COPS) (2013).  Grants and Funding.  Retrieved From: http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?item=46

Foster, R.E. (2000).  Police Technology.  Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall

International Association of Crime Analysts (IACA), (2012).  GIS Software Requirements for Crime Analysts: Standards, Methodology, & Technology (SMT) Committee White Paper. Retrieved From http://www.iaca.net/Publications/IACA

National Associations of Michigan, (2002). What is S.A.R.A. Problem Solving? Retrieved From: http://www.a2gov.org/government/safetyservices/Police/Documents/SARA%20problem%20solving%20sheet.pdf

National Institute of Justice, (n.d.).  Funding for Equipment.  Retrieved From: http://www.nij.gov/funding/equipment-funding.htm

 Siegel, L.J. (2010). Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies. Tenth Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

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Ethical Challenges Faced By Law Enforcement Regularly

by Elizabeth Hall

“Even if a man is answerable only to his conscience, he will answer more responsibly if he is 

English: Instructor Training Partner Nation Counter Narcotics Police Officer. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

compelled to articulate principles on which he acts.”  ~ Lon Fuller The Morality of Law (1975)

Introduction

When considering Fuller’s (1975) principle, it is necessary to apply it to real life situations that law enforcement personnel may encounter in their time of service, and what reactions to these scenarios are the ethical choices when facing moral dilemmas on the job.  We will examine what the moral dilemma is, what laws or policies govern the situation, or if this is left to officer discretion.  Another thing to consider is what principles and considerations should apply to the situation and what consequences could arise from these decisions.  In examining everyday situations that could arise with friends and narcotics, accepting gifts and gratuities, and accepting multiculturalism in the workplace we will determine what reactions are ethical and how this author would react.  

Scenario I Drugs at a Friend’s House

English: Police officer of Brazilian Civil Police Português: Policial civil brasileiro (Papiloscopista) (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The situation: I am an off duty police officer and I am invited to a party at an old friend’s house.  It is Friday night, I am off, and I have no plans, so I head to the party.  Upon arrival, there is quite a gathering in the back yard, so I visit with people and am having a good time.  I have had a couple of beers, and I head inside to the restroom when I notice several people in the house around a table with cocaine lines adorning the tabletop. I have never seen these people before, and my friend has been in the back yard the whole time I have been here.  I head to the restroom, and ponder what to do.

In this scenario, the moral dilemma is whether you want to get your friend in trouble, because even if he did not know that they were using cocaine in his house he is still liable for it being there because he owns the house.  We have a choice, we can turn around and pretend that we did not see anything, and leave the party, with or without notifying our friend, or we can abide by what the law says, and by the plain sight rule and seize the evidence and arrest the people at the party.  According to FindLaw (2012), if a law enforcement officer is in a place that he is authorized to be then he does not need any form of warrant to seize evidence such as narcotics that are in plain view.  Since we are 100% aware that these narcotics are illegal, and the dilemma is that I will be betraying an old friend by calling this in, I must consider both sides of the issue.

  I must consider that the consequences of doing my job may end my friendship, and the consequences of not doing my job may cost me that job if anyone found out that I let my friend get away with this.  I also may not be able to forgive myself no matter what choice I make.  After careful consideration, the decision is that I must call this in because I would be letting myself down more by ignoring the situation.   The law is clear on this action, due to the illegality of the narcotics, and I must obey my duty to uphold the law no matter what my friends think, and I believe that my friend should have either not invited me or policed his guests himself, not allowing that type of behavior in his house. 

Scenario II Accepting a Gift

Mounted officer of the Metropolitan Police at Buckingham Palace, London (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The situation:   I am a community police officer, and it is Christmas Eve.  I stop in a local shop to pick up a few items.  This particular shopkeeper is well known in the community, and is active in the communities’ crime prevention programs.  As I am shopping, he calls me to the counter, producing a fruit basket, and a gift card worth $30 for my family as a Christmas present to show his appreciation.

In this instance, there is a moral dilemma however; it may not be clear as a bell.  What the moral choice is for me is whether I will accept gratuities in the course of performing my duties.  In cases such as this, often it is left up to the discretion of the officer whether or not to accept a gratuity, and even a free cup of coffee counts.  I must consider whether I want to enter the slippery slope of police acceptance of gratuities, because according to Delattre (2011), the gift may come with hidden expectations from the person giving it to you. 

This can include expecting you to look the other way when minor offenses like parking violations occur around their businesses, or favor when caught doing something wrong, such as driving under the influence.  In this scenario, I would have to refuse the gift, suggesting that he donate it to the local homeless shelter instead of giving it to me.  When considering this scenario, while it may look innocent enough at first can become a catalyst to you feeling obligated later to compromise the ethics of your position based on a kindness.  It also can allow you to justify compromising your ethics and morals because you already have in a small manner (Delattre, 2011). 

Scenario III Homosexual Partner

The situation:   I am a supervisor commanding a shift at a medium sized law enforcement agency.  Officer Ted Jones has been with the agency for the last sixteen years.  Officer Jones is also a homosexual that hangs out at a gay bar on his own time.  The fact is known around the office about this.  My agency runs two man patrol units with assigned partners, and Jones has recently been assigned to partner with Officer James Davis.  Davis has come to me, asking me to assign him another partner because of Officer Jones’ sexual preferences.

In this scenario there is a very large moral dilemma coupled with some civil rights rulings that complicate this matter.  The moral dilemma entails the fact that we have become a multicultural society that legally cannot discriminate based on sex, creed, religion, race, ethnicity, nationality, or sexual preference as of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Shusta, Levine, Wong, Olsen, & Harris, 2008). This must be considered alongside the fact that if I do not reassign Mr. Davis, this could mean life-threatening risks to Mr. Jones or Mr. Davis, if Officer Davis chose to ignore safety and team dynamics during the course of performing his job.  In this case, I believe that the policy of the Civil Rights Act dictates the situation.

  I cannot reassign Officer Davis on these grounds, because this could be perceived as discrimination by both the agency and Mr. Davis, and have our agency in court fighting a lawsuit, which we would lose.  I do have a choice that I could reassign Officer Davis quietly and hope that the reason does not get out, but again this would be a short term solution to this problem because others might feel the same way.  I would also be risking my position because the discrimination claim would also name me, because I allowed it to happen.  The ethical solution to this problem, as the laws dictate is to supply my agency with some diversity training, have a talk with Officer Davis, as well, and leave Officer Jones assigned as he is (Shusta, Levine, Wong, Olsen, & Harris, 2008).

A senior police officer of the Hamburg police on assignment at Hamburg city hall, Germany. Français : Capitaine de la police de Hambourg en faction devant l'hôtel de ville de Hambourg, en Allemagne. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Conclusion

When considering Fuller’s (1975) principle, we must apply it to real life situations that law enforcement personnel may encounter in their time of service.  Some of these situations are dictated by mandate and law, while others are left up to the officer and professional discretion.  In many cases, we must examine what reactions to these scenarios are the ethical choices when facing moral dilemmas on the job.  One must also consider that all breeches of the ethical standards held by the job can lead to further indiscretions; however, individual character plays a huge role in who crosses the slippery slope and who does not. 

References:

Delattre, E. J., (2011).  Ethics in Policing: Character and Cops.  Sixth Edition.  The American Enterprise Institute Press.  Washington, D.C.

FindLaw, (2012).  Illegal Search and Seizure FAQ’s.  Retrieved From: http://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-rights/illegal-search-and-seizure-faqs.html

Fuller, L.L., (1975).  The Morality of Law.  New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975, p. 159.

Shusta, R., Levine, D., Wong, H., Olson, A., & Harris, P. (2008).  Multicultural Law Enforcement Strategies for Peacekeeping in a Diverse Society (4^th Ed.).  Pearson         

            Prentice Hall.  Upper Saddle River, NJ

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Exploring Research Methodology in the Criminal Justice System

by Elizabeth Hall

Introduction

Pond near the College of Research Methodology and Cognitive Science (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

All around us every day are examples of the results of scientific research that most of us probably take for granted.  Within the confines of the criminal justice system, research plays an important part in our society, as it is this research that ascertains what laws and policies we as citizens must obey or become part of the system when they are caught disobeying these laws and policies (Siegel, 2010).  All scientific research is governed by rules that apply to the scope and methodology that is allowed for academic and scientific credence, which is how we use inquiry to achieve positive changes in society. Sampling of research populations are utilized to keep things confidential and balanced.  One hypothesisthat we could explore is whether providing adequate mandatory mental health care in the correctional system, would reduce recidivism.  In this essay we will explore the methodology that is utilized in criminal justice research, including the survey, interview, observation, statistical data collection, and questionnaire methods along with applying them to our research hypothesis (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).

Survey Research Methodology and Application

Survey research is utilized in the criminal justice field often as noted by Babbie & Maxfield (2010), and often provides information that people would not readily admit, such as drug use or criminal history.  This type of research Driscoll (2011) holds that surveys are defined as a short list of questions that can be fill in the blank, multiple choice and even true or false entries that study participants fill out and return. These are both open and close ended questions.  Researchers formulate a survey based on the hypothesis of the project with questions designed to provide the best data to prove or disprove the hypothesis.  Surveys provide information about participant’s opinions and behaviors regarding the subject of the hypothesis (Driscoll, 2011).  Babbie & Maxfield (2010) hold that surveys can be self reporting or targeted, such as victimization surveys. 

Interview Research Methodology and Application

English: "Lebanon's Scientific Research Center" Organization's Logo (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Interview research according to Driscoll (2011) is defined as either one on one or small groups of participants answering questions to a researcher in person.  One issue with this type of methodology as opposed to the survey method is that it is slightly less confidential.  This is because participants must answer the questions directly to the researcher.  Babbie & Maxfield (2010) however, hold that more responses are gained by interview research methodology because they send interviewers out to record the responses, instead of just relying on participants to return a form on their own with an average of 80-85 percent return rate. 

Observation Research Methodology and Application

Babbie & Maxfield (2010), hold that the observation method of conducting social science research provides the most conclusive data.  Researchers who utilize this type of data collection may either participate minimally, partially, or fully, however they may not cross ethical lines while participating. For instance those participating in a study on theft as researchers should not steal.  The application of this methodology is that the researcher would insert themselves into the experiment based on the level of participation chosen and record data about the experience and subject during the process (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).     

Statistical DataCollection Research Methodology and Application

Statistical Data Collection involves the mathematical side of the social sciences and provides more empirical data notes Babbie & Maxfield (2010).  There are two types of statistical data used in these applications, descriptive and inferential.  Descriptive statistical data provides a quantitative summary of data while inferential statistics provide the means for researchers to draw conclusions based on their observation.  Descriptive data also called univariate data can be measured in frequency distributions or summary averages such as with mean, mode, and the median representatives of data groups.  Inferential statistics are usually drawn from a sampling of the entire range of the study population.  These are tested to measure accuracy with a test of statistical significance based on logic suggesting correlation between the x and y variables in the study (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010). 

Questionnaire Research Methodology and Application

While one might think that the survey and the questionnaire are the same thing, when it comes to scientific research they are very different (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).  A survey as discussed before has several different types of questions, but a questionnaire usually has a combination of statements and questions including open ended, multiple-choice, true or false, and the addition of contingency questions.  These can eliminate parts of the questionnaire for groups and allow for more variables in the research as they may skip certain parts and continue on to others based on previous answers.  This type of research can be administered in focus groups, by mail, in person, and by telephone, as can surveys (Driscoll, 2011).

Research Hypothesis

In this paper we are going to explore the hypothesis that follows: providing mandatory adequate psychological care in correctional facilities would reduce recidivism and overcrowding in the correctional system. In exploring this topic we will look at it using the statistical data collection and observation methodologies and how they would be utilized in the research.  The statistical data collection technique and the observation technique are used together to form conclusions based on inferential data.  Observational data can be obtained by the researcher observing the effects of increased psychological care measured in this study by transferring notes from the insertion of the researcher and staff into three correctional facilities as psychological counselors, and can be measured by the rate of recidivism amongst the inmate populations over the next ten years. The inmate files would contain this information which can be managed with a database or spreadsheet.  Inferential statistical data can then be mined for trends in crime patterns and recidivism rates out of the observational data gathered, and policy and laws can be enacted to positively affect society (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010). 

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Conclusion

Scientific research not only shapes the products we use, but even the policies and laws that govern our country (Driscoll, 2011).  Sociologists and criminologists use this research to study crime, including causation, trends, and behaviors using the research to help curb recidivism and promote good mental health in a modern society (Siegel, 2010).  The most utilized method of research in these fields is surveys, and the most relevant to the hypothesis.  We have explored the methodology that is utilized in criminal justice research, including the survey, interview, observation, statistical data collection, and questionnaire methods along with applying them to our research hypothesis (Babbie & Maxfield, 2010).

References:

Babbie, E., & Maxfield, M.G., (2010).  Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology.  Second Edition.  United States, Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Driscoll, D.L. (2011).  Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews.  Retrieved From: http://wac.colostate.edu/books/writingspaces2/driscoll--introduction-to-primary-research.pdf

Siegel, L.J. (2010).  Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies.  Tenth Edition.  Belmont:    

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