A Closer Look at Police Technology

by Elizabeth Hall

Introduction

When we think of law enforcement officers of decades ago what readily comes to mind are the sheriffs of the Old West armed with a badge, a gun, and a deputy if he was lucky notes Foster (2000).  In modern policing there are sophisticated pieces of equipment developed by modern science and 

English: Mounted law enforcement (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

technology such as computers, software designed for specific functions to aid in investigation, radar, breathalyzers, thermal imaging systems, digital cameras, crime mapping tools and even our own cell phones and devices to investigate, obtain warrants, and convict criminals. With these advances in technology there are distinct advantages to an investigation, however there are also distinct disadvantages, as criminals have access to some of these tools as well (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008).  In this paper we will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computers and software has on law enforcement, along with some examples of how technology has been utilized both for and against law enforcement investigations. 

Advantages of Computers and Software in Investigation

Foster (2000) holds that during the Community Policing Era law enforcement technology turned to computers to aid in the new style of policing America.  These technologies added tools such as 

Seal of the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), USA. — “Servicing Our Citizens” (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD), the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), Enhanced 911 systems, and even the Automated Fingerprint Identity System are some of the real tools that law enforcement have at their disposal.  Schultz (2008) also lists technological tools that have enabled law enforcement to have information and databases at their disposal even when in their cars, and those that replace officers altogether such as cameras that record graffiti and vandalism, and photo enforcement systems which allow for crimes to be reported automatically in cases of vandalism or traffic violations, which the agency can then send out a traffic ticket complete with photo of car as proof or feed the data about the vandalism complete with photos in the their computers to aid in the investigation and apprehension of the vandals.  Thermal imaging cameras allow officers to monitor for suspects, number of people in the building, detect possible narcotics growing operations, and gather other data from afar gaining them the advantage of surprise when it is time to apprehend the criminals (Schultz, 2008). All of these tools allow for faster, safer law enforcement intervention into criminal investigation by shaving time off of individual evidence identification, suspect identification, dispatch of personnel, and validity of evidence in the courtroom by providing allowable visual evidence, or by allowing law enforcement to gain knowledge without detection by the criminals.    

Disadvantages of Computers and Software on Law Enforcement

While there are advantages to law enforcement with the advancement of technological tools, there are also disadvantages, as criminals have access to computers and software as well (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008). What makes it particularly disadvantageous to law enforcement is that by the nature of the internet and global accessibility these crimes are not impossible, but very difficult to trace.  Often crimes are committed from another country and prosecution requires multiple country cooperation to investigate and prosecute criminals.  Another difficulty is funding, as technology is always updating, and law enforcement budgeting may not allow for the rapid replacement of equipment, particularly in smaller agencies. What makes it particularly disadvantageous to law enforcement is that by the nature of the internet and global accessibility these crimes are not impossible, but very difficult to trace. With the technological advances of the computer and the ease of use of the internet, transnational and national criminals take advantage of these tools every day (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008). 

Ways to Utilize Technology to Commit a Crime

Criminalscan use computers and cell phones to commit fraud, identity theft, scams, hacking, stalking, bullying, harassment, child pornography violations, child enticement, narcotics distribution and manufacture, cell phone fraud, terrorism and even last but certainly not least, organized crime (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008).   Deirmenjian (2002) speaks of the ease which pedophiles can trade, sell or buy photos, belong to private forums, groups and chat rooms, and generally indulge in their fantasies.  A simple thing as email can be used in the commission of cyberstalking, harassment, or even to used to threaten someone, along with scams designed to gain personal information or funds from a person by proclaiming they won the lottery, are due an inheritance, have governmental oversight funds to disburse, or a sick relative, which are known as advance fee scams.  Identity fraud is also connected with this as some of them ask you for personal information which can then be sold or utilized later.  Organized crime groups can sell stolen merchandise, narcotics, monitor their gambling and loan sharking operations, and even recruit members over the internet (Knetzger, M. & Muraski, 2008).  

Case Example of Criminal Enterprise with Computers

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) (2012) reports that a large ring of Tech Support Scams was discovered originating out of India which they are launching a major offensive and have succeeded in locking the assets of at least six enterprises.  The criminals use phones and computers to commit the crimes by posing as legitimate telemarketers from major companies, talking unsuspecting victims into believing that their computer needs to be rid of spy and malware.  The victims would then

English: Washington, D.C. headquarters of the Federal Trade Commission. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

 pay fees to the fake company representatives to allow them to then remotely access their computers and “fix” the problem.  With fees ranging from $49 to $450 per fix, they would direct the consumer to a software download allowing them to remotely download useless or free programs to the consumer machine (FTC, 2012).   

Case Example of Computers Aiding in Solving Crimes

Deirmenjian (2002) cites several cases where pedophiles were arrested and their own computers were not only utilized in the criminal activity, but also aided in the investigation of the crimes.  For example, a thirty eight year old male pedophile was caught trying to set up a meeting with a 13 year old girl, which turned out to be an officer posing as that minor.  He was caught when he turned up for the meeting.  Another case was that of a murderer out on parole who thought he was communicating with a mother who would allow him to sexually assault her teenage daughters.  Imagine his surprise when he landed back in jail for that one due to the anonymity of the internet, and his inability to control his impulses.

Conclusion

Technological advances in society have had both positive and negative effects on law enforcement in this country, although there have been huge strides in the positive effects (Foster, 2002).  Even though the commissions of some crimes are aided by the use of software, computers, and the internet, often these same tools can aid in the investigation, arrest, and prosecution of crime.  The benefits of information sharing between our law enforcement agencies through databases like AFIS and CODIS, the fingerprint and DNA databases, crime and criminal information such as that found on NCIC, and advances in technology such as vandalism systems and photo enforcement systems save our officers time and keep them engaged and in action at the same time by making information available to them in their cars at their fingertips instead of in a records room sorting through fingerprint cards.  This far outweighs the disadvantages the criminals pose.

References:

Deirmenjian, J.M. MD, (2002).  Pedophilia on the Internet.  Journal of Forensic Science, Sept 2002.  Vol 47, № 5.  Retrieved From: http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Pedophilia_on_the_Internet.pdf

Federal Trade Commission, (FTC), (2012).  FTC Halts Massive Tech Support Scams.  Retrieved From: http://ftc.gov/opa/2012/10/pecon.shtm

Foster, R.E. (2000). Police Technology. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall

Knetzger, M. & Muraski, (2008).  Investigating High-Tech Crime.  New Jersey Prentice Hall, Pearson Education.  ISBN:  0-536-08577-3

Schultz, P.D., (2008).  The Future is Here: Technology in Police Departments.  The Police Chief, vol. LXXV, no. 6, June 2008.  Retrieved From: http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?article_id=1527&fuseaction=display&issue_id=62008

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Effective Tactical Analysis for Robbery Investigations

by Elizabeth Hall

Introduction

City X is besieged by multiple daytime robberiesinvolving multiple jurisdictions in the city. In the last year statistics show a 20% increase in robberies in general.   In order to effectively deal with this crime problem this agency will discuss what investigative steps should be taken to identify the sources of the problem.  We will also discuss what technological assistance may be needed; we will analyze the patterns of robberies committed during the day time, and come up with a plan for synthesizing the data.  After the patterns are identified and the data is synthesized we can decide what investigative units, equipment, and supplies are needed.  Once all of that is decided, we will look into acquiring funding to implement our strategic plan to reduce the daytime robberies in City X, and hopefully apprehend the person or persons responsible for the robberies.

Human blood droplets. An example of a forensics photograph of an imitation crime scene. A scale by a common object (United States Quarter) has been used. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Investigative Steps

When analyzing patterns and trends in crime there are several investigative steps that can be utilized to identify the source and implement strategic steps to deal with the trends (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004). These are,

1.      Review police reports from all jurisdictions

2.      Re-interview any witnesses found in the police reports

3.      Review all forensic evidence from the cases found within the police reports.

4.      Review any camera footage captured at the scenes.

5.      Review the tactical analysis of the police agencies within the city’s multiple jurisdictions for trends and similarities they have already found.

6.      Synthesize the data for easier review by querying the robberies and organizing the data by details such as MO, time of day, or location.

7.      Map the offenses

8.      Determine if we can borrow any manpower from the agencies involved.

9.      Call agencies surrounding the city to determine if there are any increases in their areas.

10.  Look at any zoning changes, large population changes, or new businesses that could be affecting the rates of these crimes.

The effective utilization of these investigative steps will allow us to step back and develop strategical plans to effectively use our resources as wisely as possible (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004).

Technological Assistance

Police agencies have come a long way since the days when everything was hand written and gone over piece by piece as noted by Foster (2000).  Some of the technical assistance that will be utilized in this strategic plan are fairly new tools brought on by the technological advances made with the invention of computers.   AFIS and NCIC are two databases maintained by law enforcement nationally which allow agencies to compare both arrest records and fingerprints to quickly locate matches or suspects recently arrested or released.  There will also be use of the Uniform Crime Report Data, and NIMBRS both which record incident reports.  Another technological tool that can be utilized is Geographical Information Software (GIS) that allows for analysts to create complex mapping data (International Association of Crime Analysts, (IACA), 2012.   

Analyzing the Robbery Pattern

The S.A.R.A. model of analytics is often used in law enforcement (Neighborhood Association of Michigan, 2000). There are four steps in this model, scanning, analyzing, response and assessment. Scanning is where you identify the problem, analyzing of course is where the raw data comes in.  Response is the strategic plans that are put into place, and assessment is where you decide if your plan is effective.  The first step in analyzing the robbery pattern is the gathering of raw data.  The data will be the police reports and tactical reports from the individual jurisdictions.  We will have to get them from each jurisdiction individually, and we need to examine at least the last five years to determine levels of change (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004).

GemIdent analyzing results using data analysis and visualization tools (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Synthesizing the Data and Data Conclusion

The next step would be to synthesize the data to get what we are looking for easily.  What this means is taking out the data that is not needed in order to look at the particulars of the crimes we are interested in.  Once the data is synthesized we would interview any witnesses listed in the individual robbery reports, go over any forensic evidence collected to see if anything was missed that could help, and review any camera footage for the same reasons (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004). Effectively we can measure the rate of change by dividing the number of robbery crimes by the population for each year looked at which would give us a per person comparison (Siegel, 2010). 

We can also measure the percentage of change in the last five years of robbery crimes by calculating the new data minus the old data, divided by the old data which would give us the percentage of change in robbery crimes. When we get the data the most effective way to manage this is to create a spreadsheet or database with all of the crime information by jurisdiction.  We can then drill down to separate the robberies from all of the other crimes reported.  The best way would be to arrange the data so that it can be sorted by jurisdiction, type of robbery, time of day, MO, and location, which will allow us to separate the data we are looking for easily (Bruce, Hicks, & Cooper, 2004).

What we have found through this process is that there is an increase in all jurisdictions of property crimes in general and robberies have increased in the areas located on the major highway that runs through all of them.  The data shows that the city population has doubled from five years ago, and convenience store robberies account for most of the increase.  This coincides with the increase in these types of businesses as the neighborhoods have grown considerably.  The robberies were committed by different Part of the solution is to increase patrols, and maintain a higher police presence in the neighborhoods, at least until we can get the problem contained. 

Investigative Units Needed

In order to effectively execute our strategic planning we needed to use several different investigative units.  These are comprised of the individual crime analysis units of the jurisdictions, the investigative units of each jurisdiction, regular beat cops, and of course the forensics team.  The solution requires us to hire more patrol units, at least two per jurisdiction.  Each patrol unit is comprised of two officers, so we will need a total of ten new officers for the city.

Metro Transit Police (Photo credit: cliff1066™)

Equipment and Supplies Needed

To complete our evaluation of this problem, we needed GIS software to aid in our crime mapping, and computers to crunch the numbers and save us time.  We also used database software such as Goldmine in all of the jurisdictions to effectively be able to keep records management.  Microsoft Access is also useful in crime analysis and is used in many police organizations by their crime analysis units.  None of these software packages are effective if the persons using them are not trained, so we have to have training programs available as well (IACA, 2012).  In our strategical solution we need to hire more patrol officers to maintain a high police presence.  This also requires that we have more patrol cars and more spots in the training facility for law enforcement officers.

Acquiring Funding

When agencies need more equipment or personnel they must apply for grants or funding from agencies designed or this usually associated with the Department of Justice.  There are programs within the Office of Community Policing for funding equipment and personnel increases that can be applied for such as the Cops Hiring Program, and the Community Policing Development program (COPS, 2013).  The National Institute of Justice offers funding programs and grants for equipment purchases such as the Justice Association Grant Program which applies funding for equipment purchases and new personnel.  There is also programs for transferring federal surplus property to state and local agencies at the National Institute of Justice (n.d.).

Conclusion

3201 S Halsted's Traffic Analysis Zone (Photo credit: Steven Vance)

When looking at crimes from a law enforcement perspective, crime analysis units provide the most effective information.  This is because it is their job to keep track of the data collected and to provide the agencies with reports and planning to deal with the crime problems of the jurisdiction.  In this essay we looked at the robbery pattern of City X, and discovered that the population has had an explosion, along with the increase of robbery crimes.  The recommendation is to hire more patrol personnel to ensure a high police presence in the areas affected by this population increase. To do this we need to apply for funding with an agency such as the National Institute of Justice or the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services to afford the equipment and extra personnel needed to curb this problem. 

References:

Bruce, C.W., Hick, S.R., & Cooper, J.P. (2004).  Exploring Crime Analysis Reading on Essential             Skills.  International Association of Crime Analysts.  Overland Park, KS.

Community Oriented Policing Services, (COPS) (2013).  Grants and Funding.  Retrieved From: http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?item=46

Foster, R.E. (2000).  Police Technology.  Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall

International Association of Crime Analysts (IACA), (2012).  GIS Software Requirements for Crime Analysts: Standards, Methodology, & Technology (SMT) Committee White Paper. Retrieved From http://www.iaca.net/Publications/IACA

National Associations of Michigan, (2002). What is S.A.R.A. Problem Solving? Retrieved From: http://www.a2gov.org/government/safetyservices/Police/Documents/SARA%20problem%20solving%20sheet.pdf

National Institute of Justice, (n.d.).  Funding for Equipment.  Retrieved From: http://www.nij.gov/funding/equipment-funding.htm

 Siegel, L.J. (2010). Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies. Tenth Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

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Today’s Investigative Special Report – January 7, 2013 “Dealing With Todays Law Enforcement Specialized Investigations” “Law Enforcement’s Educational Game Plan For 2013”

By Lawrence W. Daly, MSc

Forensic Expert – Senior Author

The investigative complexity of child sexual assaultinvestigations are providing law enforcement with the many opportunities to take a major step in learning and expanding their knowledge as

ACT Police vehicle (Ford Falcon FG) and uniformed officers in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

 competent and intelligent investigators as they move into a new year, 2013.

In 2012, technology provided a new way of learning, educating, and training in the law enforcement community. The new technology created an enormous amount of advancements within the law enforcement community for professional educational advancements. In 2013 there will be a continuous of new technological foundations which will be supported by computers and technological gadgets. The advanced developments of LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Tango, MySpace, Online Communication Software, and most importantly texting has allowed instant communication for many individuals, businesses, organizations, and law enforcement agencies.

Image via CrunchBase

The most notable online social networking tools which are being utilized by individuals and organizations are software programs such as Adobe Connection, Skype, Go To Meeting, IT Management, and so many other online programs.

The education and training which has been available before were seminars, conferences, workshops, and meetings. This required law enforcement personnel their time, travel time, financial demands, and the cost of the education and training. The reduction of personnel time, travel time, and all financial considerations has made advance

Image via CrunchBase

d education and training a reality for individuals and organizations which couldn’t afford sending their personnel.

The immediate negative aspect of the online learning is the lack of human contact. Most professionals enjoy the opportunity to expend time with other professionals in their field. Once the daily education and training has taken place there is always time for individuals to get together and discuss the type of cases they are dealing with and how they approached them. The exchange of ideas during a face to face contact has its benefits.

Using the online software doesn’t allow for this human contact and therefore law enforcement officials attend the training and generally that is it. Sometimes the individuals exchange information and discuss having further contact either by email or telephone. Most law enforcement professionals enjoy being associated with “think tanks.” These “think tanks” provide law enforcement with a multitude of opportunities to learn, create, innovate, and share. There are many benefits to “th

ink tanks” which need to be discussed here:

1.      Each law enforcement officer benefits from being an associate of the think tanks. Generally the association requires a formal membership which allows its members to review materials e.g. articles, books, journals, and other resources they would not have access to if they were not a member. Moreover, the specific literature in the law enforcement child sexual assault investigative issues, child, witness, and perpetrator interviews would be accessible and the instant benefit would be apparent to the officer.

2.      The think tanks generally have a diverse membership in there are many officers who have worked in many investigative fields in their department and bring with them this knowledge and experience.

3.      The think tanks provide a platform for law enforcement officers to be creative, innovative, collaborative, problem solvers, and so forth.

4.      The think tanks provide timely meetings and agendas. A national protocol and procedure are currently missing in the law enforcement community and there are several ideologies of how a child sexual assault case should be investigated. There are a multitude of protocols and procedures in how an interview of a child victim should be performed. Although there are agreement aspects of how the interview should be conducted. In 2013 there should be a movement to advance the national protocol and procedure for how to investigate and interview child sexual assault allegations.

5.      The think tanks can be structured like a listserv where the members can contact other members for advice about how they would handle a specific investigation or discuss training and education advice or other related areas.

6.      The think tanks provide a platform where positive discussions, combined ideas, motivated ideas, creative and innovative ideas, research ideas and suggestions, provide leadership within the law enforcement community and so forth. The need for law enforcement research in specific areas in child sexual assault investigation needs to be performed by law enforcement and not the academia professionals.

7.      The think tanks are an intersection of a multitude of experience, education, training, thoughts about the past, and many other foundational ideas. Further, these intersectional ideologies will bring about futuristic policies and procedures which will assist other law enforcement agencies and their officers in how they can become more effective and efficient in the child sexual assault investigation industry.

In law enforcement the tendency over the years in the investigative area has been reactive and no proactive. The need for intense leadership and positive influence over a community of law enforcement officials is a must in the child sexual assault investigation industry. There needs to be a mentality throughout the law enforcement community that all of the aspects of the investigation, including child interviewing, witness interviewing, interrogation of perpetrators, processing of crime scenes, analyzation of evidence, medical examinations, medical evidence, and so forth continually 

WASHINGTON (June 25, 2009) The Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) is the Navy's primary law enforcement and counterintelligence force. The agency works in tandem with local, state, and federal law enforcement as well as foreign agencies to counter and investigate the most serious crimes ranging from terrorism and espionage to common felonies involving Department of the Navy personnel. (U.S. Navy photo illustration by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class R. Jason Brunson/Released) (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

needs to have an internal and external hierarchical policies, processes, procedures, and protocols.

Law enforcement officers need to become involved in the external issues of the child sexual assault investigation community. These external issues deal with the education and training which currently exists but must be develop during the 2013 year. There are too many other individuals in the academia industry who have great influence on what law enforcement will do during child interviews. Although they have assisted law enforcement in establishing the manner in which children are interviewed, they have not advocated for law enforcement officers to lead in the interviewing of children.

This author has written extensively on the issues surrounding law enforcements roles and responsibilities in the entire paradigm of the investigative and interview process. There should never be an attitude that it is appropriate to ‘outsource’ any responsibility of the investigation. This is the current process at the current time in the United States. There are some law enforcement agencies which advocate for their Special Assault detectives to interview any and all child victims. This should be the attitude of all law enforcement agencies.

As law enforcement evaluates and examines the education and training of the 2013 there needs to be a microscopic evaluation which will promote competence and intelligence in the child sexual assault investigation community. Many law enforcement officers are rarely made aware of the education and training structure which is necessary in order to be assigned to the Special Assault Unit (SAU).

The attitude that SAU detectives work 9-5 is a major misnomer as a part of each day needs to be set aside for training and education. The law enforcement agencies should not be responsible for their detectives to educate themselves in every aspect of their job. Being a public employee is different than the private business environment as there is a need for some of the work time to be voluntary. This may be confusing to the majority of people especially public employees, but most communities can’t afford paying their employees to self-educate.

Some law enforcement agencies pay incentive pay for those individuals who attain college degrees or already have degrees when they are hired. The higher the degree the more pay the employee will receive. In 2013 the law enforcement community needs to structure an educational and training development program for any and all officers who obtain educational degrees and a variety of training. The opportunities are there and the officers need to take advantage of these program.

Major private organizations will pay for undergraduate and graduate school. Generally, the two requirements are they receive a ‘B’ grade and they complete the course. Reimbursement is a positive step in developing the employee, especially if the employee remains after receiving the education. Too often because of the lack of recognition for obtaining educational achievements, a lack of cross-training, obtaining management experience, and so forth, the employee will obtain employment where their education and training is appreciated and the amount of salary is greater. Law enforcement agencies need to have a similar program as that which is an aspect of the private business world.

Law enforcement agencies must require a Professional Development Action Plan (PDAP) for all of their employees. This will provide management with an understanding if their specialized employees such as those assigned to SAU have failed to outline their education and training for the 2013 year. It the employee has failed to prepare a PDAP, then there needs to be a one on one meeting where together, the supervisor and the officer, outline the PDAP. If the management promotes a positive external educational and training program, then the motivation and excitement is raised to a level, which has not been an aspect of their employee’s performance.

California Coalition Against Sexual Assault (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The educational and training technology which will make a difference in 2013 will allow SAU detectives to become involved in many educational and training programs, such as ‘think tanks’ to enhance the creative, intelligent, competent, and intelligence of current and futuristic policies in the law enforcement child sexual assault investigations. This is to include a positive and motivated attitude of returning all investigative aspects of the investigation of child sexual assault allegations back to law enforcement i.e. child victim interviews.

 

Lawrence W. Daly

www.onedaly.com

206-650-0229

onedaly@onedaly.com

Kent, WA

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